MEDITERRANEAN ACTION PLAN
MED POL
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
STRATEGIC ACTION PROGRAMME TO ADDRESS POLLUTION
FROM LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES
PROGRAMME D'ACTIONS STRATEGIQUE VISANT A COMBATTRE LA
POLLUTION DUE A DES ACTIVITES MENEES A TERRE
MAP Technical Reports Series No. 119
UNEP
Athens, 1998
Note:
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© 1999 United Nations Environment Programme
P.O Box 18019, Athens, Greece
ISBN 92-807-1707-3
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For bibliographic purposes this volume may be cited as:
UNEP: Stategic Action Programme to Address Pollution from Land-based Activities.
UNEP, Athens, 1999.
Pour des fins bibliographiques, citer le présent volume comme suit:
PNUE: Programme d'Actions Stratégiques visant à combattre la pollution due à des activités menées à
terre. PNUE, Athènes, 1999.
This volume has also been published as MAP Technical Reports Series No. 119, UNEP, Athens, 1998.
Le présent volume a été publié au titre de No. 119 de la Série des rapports techniques du PAM, PNUE,
Athènes, 1998.
This volume is the one hundred and nineteenth issue of the Mediterranean Action Plan Technical Reports
Series.
This series contains selected reports resulting from the various activities performed within the framework
of the components of the Mediterranean Action Plan: Pollution Monitoring and Research Programme (MED
POL), Blue Plan (BP), Priority Actions Programme (PAP), Specially Protected Areas (SPA) and Regional
Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean Sea (REMPEC).
Ce volume constitue le cent dix neuvième numéro de la série des rapports techniques du Plan d'Action
pour la Méditerranée.
Cette série comprend certains rapports élaborés au cours des diverses activités menées dans le cadre des
composantes du Plan d'action pour la Méditerranée: Programme de surveillance continue et de recherche
en matière de pollution (MED POL), Plan Bleu (PB), Programme d'actions prioritaires (PAP), Aires
spécialement protégées (ASP) et Centre régional méditerranéen pour l'intervention d'urgence contre la
pollution marine accidentelle (REMPEC).
STRATEGIC ACTION PROGRAMME TO ADDRESS
POLLUTION FROM LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
1.
Introduction
1
1.1 Basis for the preparation of the Strategic Action Programme
1
2.
Objectives
4
3.
Principles and Obligations
5
4.
Establishment of Priorities for Action
6
5.
Analysis of targets and activities
7
5.1
Urban environment
7
5.1.1 Municipal sewage
7
5.1.2 Urban Solid Waste
9
5.1.3 Air Pollution
10
5.2
Industrial development
10
5.2.1 Substances that are Toxic, Persistent and
liable to Bioaccumulate (TPB)
12
5.2.2 Other heavy metals
19
5.2.3 Organohalogen compounds
20
5.2.4 Radioactive Substances
24
5.2.5 Nutrients and Suspended Solids
24
5.2.6 Hazardous Wastes
28
5.3
Physical alterations and destruction of habitats
32
6.
Monitoring
33
7.
Capacity Building
34
7.1
To support, promote and facilitate programmes of
assistance in the area of scientific, technical and human
resources.
36
7.2
To support, promote and facilitate, as appropriate,
the capacity to apply, develop and manage the access
of cleaner production technologies as well as the
Best Available Techniques (BAT) and the Best Environmental
Practice (BEP).
36
8.
Public Participation
37
9.
Reporting
38
10. Guidelines for the Preparation of National Action Plans
38
10.1
Introduction
38
10.2
Objectives
39
10.3
Principles and Obligations
39
10.4
National Diagnostic Analysis
39
10.5
Establishment of National Priorities for Action
40
10.6
Institutional aspects
40
10.6.1 Authorization or regulation
40
10.7
Analysis of targets and activities
42
10.8
Monitoring and enforcement
43
10.9
Capacity Building
44
10.9.1
To support, promote and facilitate programmesof assistance
in the area of scientific, technical and human resources
44
10.9.2 To support, promote and facilitate, as appropriate,
the capacity to apply, develop and manage the access
of cleaner production technologies as well as the
Best Available Techniques (BAP) and the Best
Environmental Practice (BEP)
45
10.10
Public participation
46
10.11
Reporting
47
11. Investment Portfolio and Mobilization of Financial
48
Resources
11.1
Mediterranean Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas
48
11.1.1 Estimated costs from country reports
53
11.2
Investment Portfolio Scenarios
54
11.2.1 "Do nothing"
54
11.2.2 Try to do everything
55
11.3
Proposed Activities and Associated Costs
57
11.3.1 Hot spots
57
11.3.2 Sensitive areas
58
11.3.3 Cities
58
11.3.4 Regional Sustainable Environmental Management Programmes
58
11.4
Future Needs
67
11.4.1 Need for "Resource-consciousness"
67
11.4.2 Need for An Investment Strategy
68
11.5
Use of the Investment Portfolio
68
11.6
Mobilization of financial resources
69
11.6.1 National financial resources
70
11.6.2 External financial resources
71
11.6.3 Clearing-house mechanism
77
12. Gaps, Problems and Follow-up
78
- 1 -
1. INTRODUCTION
The riparian States of the Mediterranean Sea, conscious of the economic, social,
health and cultural value of the marine environment of the Mediterranean Sea Area; fully
aware of their responsibility to preserve and sustainably develop this common heritage for
the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations; recognizing the threat posed by
pollution to the marine environment, its ecological equilibrium, resources and legitimate
uses; and mindful of the special hydrographic and ecological characteristics of the
Mediterranean Sea Area and its particular vulnerability to pollution, have agreed in 1975 to
launch an Action Plan for the Protection and Development of the Mediterranean Basin (MAP)
and, in 1976, to sign a Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against
Pollution (Barcelona Convention).
The Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention, recognizing the danger posed
to the marine environment living resources and human health by pollution from land-based
sources and activities and the serious problems resulting therefrom in many coastal waters
and river estuaries of the Mediterranean Sea, primarily due to the release of untreated,
insufficiently treated or inadequately disposed of domestic or industrial discharges; and
desirous to adapt Mediterranean Action Plan, Barcelona Convention and their protocols to
the development of the environmental international law, to the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro 1992), have adopted in Barcelona in 1995 the
phase II of the Action Plan for the protection of the marine environment and sustainable
development of the coastal areas of the Mediterranean as well as substantial amendments
to the Convention and their Protocols. Furthermore, in Syracuse in 1996 a new revised
Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from Land-Based
Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) was signed, which takes into account the Global
Programme of Action for the protection of the marine environment against pollution from
land-based activities adopted in Washington in 1995.
1.1
Basis for the preparation of the Strategic Action Programme
In accordance with the 1996 LBS Protocol, the Contracting Parties (Art.1) agreed to
take all appropriate measures to prevent, abate, combat and eliminate, to the fullest possible
extent, pollution of the Mediterranean Sea Area caused by discharges from rivers, coastal
establishments or outfalls, or emanating from any other land-based sources and activities
within their territories, giving priority to the phasing out of inputs of substances that are toxic,
persistent and liable to bioaccumulate.
To this end, they agreed (Art.5) to elaborate and implement national and regional
action plans and programmes, containing measures and timetables for their implementation.
As a result, regional action plans and programmes have to be formulated by the Secretariat
and considered and approved by the relevant technical body of the Parties within one year at
the latest of the entry into force of the amendments to the LBS Protocol.
The regional Strategic Action Programme presented in this document was therefore
prepared by the Secretariat as part of a GEF PDF-B Grant with the financial participation of
MAP. A first draft text was submitted to a Meeting of Government-designated Experts which
was held in Ischia, Italy, from 15 to 18 June 1997 (UNEP(OCA)/MED WG.130/8). The
Meeting examined the first draft document and agreed on a number of amendments and
corrections/additions. The Strategic Action Programme was then submitted to a second
Meeting of Government-designated Experts, held in Athens from 13 to 16 October 1997
(UNEP(OCA)/MED WG.136/4), and their comments and suggestions were also
- 2 -
incorporated by the Secretariat who then submitted the document for adoption to the Meeting
of Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention (Tunis, 18-21 November 1997). The
present programme was adopted by the Tenth Ordinary Meeting of the Contracting Parties
according to the provisions of Art.5, 6 and 7 of the 1980 LBS Protocol. The Contracting
Parties agreed that, once the 1996 LBS Protocol come into force, the Strategic Action
Programme would be resubmitted for adoption according to the provisions of Art.15 of the
1996 Protocol. At that stage, a review of the Strategic Programme would be made to
proceed to a possible revision of target dates and activities, if necessary.
This Strategic Action Programme is based on the preliminary findings of the
regionally prepared transboundary diagnostic analysis that represents a regional synthesis of
actions regarding the protection of the marine environment from land-based activities. The
following Table presents the perceived major problems of the Mediterranean region and their
associated transboundary elements. Seven major problems have been identified from a
review of the results of the work of the Mediterranean Action Plan over the last twenty years,
the work of related programmes and the reviews undertaken in the context of the present
activity. Five main root causes are identified as resulting in the identified problems, although
the relative importance of each cause differs in relation to the individual problems. In addition
two major types of action are proposed to address each of the identified problems and again
the relative importance of each area of action differs according to the nature of the problem.
The table is prepared on a regional scale. It is not anticipated therefore that all
problems occur in each country, nor that the relative importance of the root causes or areas
for action is the same in all countries. Rather this table represents a regional overview and
perspective of the main problems, their root causes and the areas of proposed action at a
regional level.
Perceived Major Problems and their Root Causes*
MAJOR TYPES OF
TRANSBOUNDARY ELEMENTS OF
MAIN ROOT
TYPES OF
PROBLEMS
MAJOR TYPES OF PROBLEMS
CAUSES**
ACTION**
MAIN ROOT CAUSES
DEGRADATION OF
C Damage to transboundary ecosystems,
MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
COASTAL AND MARINE
including loss in productivity, biodiversity
FINANCIAL
RESOURCES
ECOSYSTEMS
and stability
LEGAL
·
Inadequate cooperation on the regional level
LEGAL
C Reduction of regional values
·
Inadequate legislation at the national level relevant to regional
C Decreased quality of life
HUMAN
Inadequate legal and
problems
C Degradation due to pollution and
STAKEHOLDERS
institutional
eutrophication
framework
·
Inadequate institutional framework and capacity necessary for
C Region-wide loss of revenue
the implementation of legislation , ICZM and EIA
·
Inadequate pollution compliance and trend monitoring
UNSUSTAINABLE
C Impacts on habitats and biodiversity
MANAGEMENT
RESOURCES
·
Ineffective coordination between various governmental sectors
EXPLOITATION OF
C Impacts of physical changes on coastal
FINANCIAL
PLANNING
and local and national level
COASTAL AND MARINE
and beach dynamics
STAKEHOLDERS
MANAGEMENT
·
Poorly coordinated intersectorial planning and
RESOURCES
C Loss of existing and potential income
from fishing and tourism
HUMAN
management
C Conflicts between user groups
LEGAL
Inadequate planning
and management at
·
Lack of integrated watershed / coastal zone management
pla
LOSS OF HABITATS
C Damage to migratory species and their
MANAGEMENT
RESOURCES
all levels
ns
SUPPORTING LIVING
habitat
FINANCIAL
PLANNING
·
Lack of application of ICZM and its tools
RESOURCES
C Endangered biotic resources
·
Inappropriate harvesting practices in fisheries
STAKEHOLDERS
C Loss of values for development
·
Inadequate pollution control strategies with monitoring
C Habitat and food web changes
HUMAN
LEGAL
HUMAN
·
Inadequate human and institutional capacity (at national and local
DECLINE IN BIODIVERSITY,
C Loss of regional values
MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
level) for the implementation of the legislature and ICZM with its
Insufficient human
LOSS OF ENDANGERED
C Damage to endangered and endemic
FINANCIAL
RESOURCES
and institutional
tools]
SPECIES AND
species of regional and global
capacity
·
Inadequate human and institutional capacity (at national and local
significance
LEGAL
INTRODUCTION OF NON-
level) for compliance and trend monitoring of pollution
C Loss of genetic biodiversity
HUMAN
INDIGENOUS SPECIES
STAKEHOLDERS
STAKEHOLDERS
·
Lack of general environmental awareness
·
Poor identification of stakeholders
INADEQUATE PROTECTION
C Reduction of regional values
MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
Insufficient
·
Lack of adequate participation of stakeholders in the planning and
OF COASTAL ZONE AND
C Loss or revenues
FINANCIAL
RESOURCES
involvement of
management of environmental problems
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
C High costs of curative interventions
LEGAL
stakeholders
AND INCREASED
C Decreased quality of life
HUMAN
FINANCIAL
·
Lack of effective economic instruments
HAZARDS AND RISKS
STAKEHOLDERS
·
Lack of internalisation of environmental costs
Inadequate financial
·
Low monetary value assigned to environment within national
WORSENED HUMAN
C Human health impacts
MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
mechanisms and
economic policies
RELATED CONDITIOINS
C Costs of dealing with human migration
FINANCIAL
RESOURCES
support
C Reduced human and institutional capacity
TYPES OF ACTION
LEGAL
C Reduction of development potential
PLANNING
·
Improvement of legal and institutional framework at regional and
C Increased poverty with transboundary
HUMAN
impacts
STAKEHOLDERS
national level for ICZM and associated tools
Integrated planning
·
Development of integrated management for river basin / coastal
INADEQUATE
C Ineffective protection of the marine and
LEGAL
PLANNING
and management and
areas and for urban agglomerations
IMPLEMENTATION OF
coastal environment
MANAGEMENT
RESOURCES
reduction of pollution
·
Improved involvement of stakeholders in environmental decision-
EXISTING REGIONAL AND
C Inadequate monitoring of pollution and
FINANCIAL
making
NATIONAL LEGISLATION
consequently inadequate data
interpretation for managerial purposes
HUMAN
·
Identification and elimination of pollution hot-spots
C Poor public education and awareness
STAKEHOLDRS
·
Adequate compliance and trend monitoring
regarding scientific and economic values
· Full implementation of relevant regional and national
and technical options
legislation
* The analysis in this table does not necessarily apply to all Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention.
RESOURCES
·
Full implementation of relevant regional and national legislation
** Main root causes and types of action are indicated in the descending order of significance.
·
Sustainable management of resources
Resources
management
·
Protection of biodiversity, endangered, endemic and migratory
species, habitats and sensitive areas
·
Development of sustainable fisheries aquaculture and
tourism
- 4 -
2. OBJECTIVES
The Strategic Action Programme (SAP) aims at improving the quality of the marine
environment by better shared-management of the land-based pollution. SAP also aims at
facilitating the implementation by the Contracting Parties of the LBS Protocol. Therefore, it is
designed to assist Parties in taking actions individually or jointly within their respective
policies, priorities and resources, which will lead to the prevention, reduction, control and/or
elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to its recovery from the
impacts of land-based activities. Achievement of the aims of the SAP will contribute to
maintaining and, where appropriate, restoring the productive capacity and biodiversity of the
marine environment, ensuring the protection of human health, as well as promoting the
conservation and sustainable use of marine living resources.
The specific objectives of the SAP Programme are:
-
Formulation of principles, approaches, measures, timetables and priorities for
action;
-
Preparation of a priority list for intervention and investments ("investment
portfolio");
-
Analysis of expected baseline and additional actions needed to resolve each
transboundary priority problem;
-
Identification of the elements and preparation of guidelines for the formulation
of national action plans for the protection of the marine environment from land-
based activities; and
-
Identification of potential roles for Non-Governmental Organizations in the
implementation of the SAP.
Since the adoption of the Mediterranean Action Plan in 1975, important progress have
been made by the Mediterranean countries for the protection of the environment both at the
national and the regional levels. At the regional level the progress is made evident by the
adoption of important amendments of the existing legal texts as well as the adoption of new
legal instruments.
In view of the unequal starting point and of the different level of socio-economic
development, the progress marked at the national level has not been homogeneous;
however, the Mediterranean countries have all created competent institutions in charge of the
protection of the environment, often at a very high political level, and have adopted legislative
measures and regulations for the protection of the environment. Since 1973, the European
Union countries have adopted five programmes for the protection of the environment, the last
one being dated 1993, which have been the basis for a large number of provisions related to
the protection of the environment.
The SAP is addressed to all Contracting Parties and proposes common objectives.
However, it is evident that the implementation of the proposed activities should take into
account the state of the environment of each country. The timing for targets and for activities
may also be different for different countries, taking into account e.g. of the capacity to adapt
and reconvert existing installations, the economic capacity and the need for development.
The 1995 Barcelona Resolution is an agreement made at ministerial level aiming at
the elimination by the year 2005 of the greatest number of substances which are toxic,
- 5 -
persistent and bioaccumulable and it was fully taken into account in the preparation of the
SAP.
For the implementation of the SAP at the regional level, the MAP Coordinating Unit will
make full use of the capabilities and the technical competences of its Regional Activity
Centres and of other competent intergovernmental organizations.
3. PRINCIPLES AND OBLIGATIONS
The Contracting Parties shall individually or jointly take all appropriate measures in
accordance with the provisions of the Convention to prevent, abate, combat and to the fullest
possible extent eliminate pollution of the Mediterranean Sea Area and to protect and enhance
marine environment in that Area so as to contribute towards its sustainable development.
In accordance with the provisions of the LBS Protocol, the Parties undertake to
eliminate pollution deriving from land-based sources and activities, in particular to phase out
inputs of the substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate listed in annex I
to the Protocol
In order to protect the environment and contribute to the sustainable development of
the Mediterranean Sea Area, the Parties shall:
a)
Apply the precautionary principle, by virtue of which where there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage, the lack of full scientific certainty should not be
used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation;
b)
Apply the polluter pays principle, by virtue of which the cost of pollution
prevention, control and reduction measures are to be borne by the polluter,
with due regard to the public interest;
c)
Undertake environmental impact assessment for proposed activities that are
likely to cause a significant adverse impact on the marine environment and are
subject to an authorization by competent national authorities;
d)
Accord priority to integrated pollution control as an important part of the move
towards a more sustainable balance between human activity and socio-
economic development, on the one hand, and the resources and regenerative
capacity of nature, on the other;
e)
Commit themselves to promote the integrated management of the coastal
zones, taking into account the protection of areas of ecological and landscape
interest and the rational and sustainable use of natural resources;
f)
In implementing the Convention and the LBS Protocol the Parties shall:
i)
Elaborate and implement, individually or jointly, as appropriate, national
and regional action plans and programmes, containing measures and
timetables;
- 6 -
ii)
adopt priorities and timetables taking into account the elements set out
in annex I of the Protocol and periodically revise them;
iii)
take into account the Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best
Environmental Practices (BEP) including, where appropriate, clean
production technologies, taking into account the criteria set forth in
Annex IV of the Protocol;
iv)
take preventive measures to reduce to a minimum the risk of pollution
caused by accidents;
g)
Ensure that, in compliance with the community right-to-know, their competent
authorities shall give to the public appropriate access to information on the
environmental state in the field of application of the Convention and the
Protocols, on activities or measures adversely affecting or likely to affect it and
on activities carried out or measures taken in accordance with the Convention
and the Protocols. (article 15 of the Convention);
h)
Ensure routine and standardized reporting of toxic emissions to air, water and
land (including off-site disposal) by polluting facilities - private, state, or
municipal. Ensure active public dissemination by the competent authorities of
the data reported bearing in mind legitimate needs for business confidentiality.
The Strategic Action Programme will be consistent with the Global Programme of
Action (Washington, 1995) and with the relevant provisions of the Convention on the Law of
the Sea, of the Convention on Biological Diversity, of the Convention on Climatic Change and
with the legal instruments and actions plans and measures adopted by the Contracting
Parties to the Barcelona Convention.
States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore
the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to
global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities.
The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international
pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global
environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.
The new LBS Protocol means a change in the strategy selected for the protection of
the Mediterranean environment; this new strategy is based on sustainability and its purpose
is to achieve integrated prevention and control of pollution arising from land-based sources
and activities, in particular through the application of clean technologies, Best Available
Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practice (BEP).
4. ESTABLISHMENT OF PRIORITIES FOR ACTION
The proposed priorities for action are based on the results of MED POL and the
Reports on pollution "hot spots", "critical habitats" and "sensitive areas" (areas of concern)
and also take in account the LBS Protocol, which in Annex 1, states "In preparing action
plans, programmes and measures, the Parties, in accordance with the Global Programme of
Action, will give priority to substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate, in
particular persistent organic pollutants (POPs), as well as to wastewater treatment and
management".
- 7 -
In general, priority actions for the prevention, reduction and elimination of pollution are
established taking in account four pollution-related factors:
i)
Degradation of the marine environment;
ii)
perturbation of the biological diversity;
iii)
land-based origin; and
iv)
transboundary nature (causes or effects).
5. ANALYSIS OF TARGETS AND ACTIVITIES
An analysis of targets and activities is needed to resolve each transboundary priority
problem. These targets and activities would be national or regional and would be of legal,
institutional or technical nature.
Taking into account the Global Programme of Action (Washington, 1995) and the LBS
Protocol, the following categories of substances have been selected as priorities. The
selected categories of substances cover urban environment and industrial development.
5.1
Urban environment
Large and even medium-size cities pose similar problems and should be studied in
an integrated manner. Air pollution, generation, collection and management of solid waste
products, collection and disposal of domestic wastewater, supplies of drinking water: in most
cities these problems are usually made worse by small and medium-size industries located
within the cities and by industrial agglomerations in the outskirts.
5.1.1 Municipal sewage
Recognizing variations in local conditions, municipal sewage improperly discharged
into freshwater and coastal environments may present a variety of concerns. These are
associated with: (a) pathogens that may result in human health problems through exposure
via bathing waters or contaminated shellfish, (b) suspended solids, (c) significant nutrient
inputs, (d) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), (e) plastics and other marine debris, (f)
ecosystem population effects, (g) heavy metals and other toxic substances, e.g.
hydrocarbons, where industrial sources may discharge into municipal collection systems,
and (h) influx of rain waters containing polluting substances.
Environmental effects associated with domestic waste water discharges are
generally local with transboundary implications in certain geographic areas. The commonality
of sewage-related problems throughout coastal areas of the world is significant.
Consequently, domestic waste water discharges are considered one of the most significant
threats to costal environments worldwide. In the Mediterranean region, this problem has
been made worse by tourism and its seasonal nature, which makes it necessary to have
treatment plants which are only used for a few months every year.
Most of the secondary treatment plants are not operated and maintained adequately
due to insufficient financial resources and a lack of technical expertise. Many countries are
now placing special emphasis on designing waste water treatment facilities to reuse
effluents.
- 8 -
One of the most common and worrying environmental effects of urban wastewater
discharges is the gradual destruction of habitats and, in particular, of meadows of
phanerogames, with the resulting decrease in biodiversity.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, to dispose all municipal waste water (sewage) in conformity
with the provisions of the LBS Protocol.
-
By the year 2005, to dispose sewage from cities and urban agglomerations
exceeding 100.000 inhabitants and areas of concern in conformity with the
provisions of the Protocol.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
By the year 2000, to update and adopt the 1986 guidelines for sewage
treatment and disposal and, as appropriate, environmental quality criteria and
standards.
-
To develop programmes for sharing and exchanging technical information and
advice regarding environmentally sound sewage treatment and facilities,
including the use of treated waste water and of sewage sludge.
-
To promote research programmes to identify and validate sewage treatment
technologies.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To update and adopt, over a period of two years, national regulations
concerning sewage discharges into the sea and rivers, which take into
account the LBS Protocol and especially its Annex II and whenever
appropriate, the common measures already adopted by the Parties.
-
By the year 2005, to develop National Plans and Programmes for the
environmentally sound Management of Sewage, (NPS), and to this end to
ensure:
i)
By the year 2005, that the coastal cities and urban agglomerations of
more than 100.000 inhabitants are connected to a sewer system and
dispose all waste water in conformity with a national regulation system;
ii)
to locate coastal outfalls so as to obtain or maintain agreed
environmental quality criteria and to avoid exposing shell fisheries,
water intakes, and bathing areas to pathogens and to avoid the
exposure of sensitive environments (such as lagoons, seagrass beds,
etc.) to excess nutrient or suspended solid loads;
iii)
to promote the primary, secondary and, where appropriate and
feasible, tertiary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to rivers,
estuaries and the sea;
- 9 -
iv)
to promote and control the good operation and proper maintenance of
existing facilities;
v)
to promote the reuse of the treated effluents for the conservation of
water resources. To this end, infra structural measures, treatment at
source and the segregation of industrial effluents, shall be encouraged,
as well as:
a)
the beneficial reuses of sewage effluents and sludges by the
appropriate design of treatment plant and processes and
controls of the quality of influent waste waters in accordance
with national regulations;
b)
the environmentally sound treatment when domestic and
compatible industrial effluents are treated together;
vi)
to promote the separate collection of rain waters and municipal waste
waters and ensure treatment of first rain waters considered particularly
polluting;
vii)
to identify the availability and sustainability of productive uses of
sewage sludge, such as land-spreading, composting, etc.
viii)
to prohibit the discharge of sludges into water in the Protocol Area.
5.1.2 Urban Solid Waste
Urban solid waste can affect the pollution of the sea in a number of ways: through the
release of raw waste into the sea, directly or indirectly, especially plastics, and through
emissions into the atmosphere of pollutants which may be generated by the combustion of
these waste products.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025 at latest, to base urban solid waste management on
reduction at source, separate collection, recycling, composting and
environmentally sound disposal.
-
By the year 2005 at latest, to base urban solid waste management on
reduction at source, separate collection, recycling, composting and
environmentally sound disposal in all cities and urban agglomerations
exceeding 100.000 inhabitants and areas of concern.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
By the year 2000 to formulate and adopt guidelines for environmentally suitable
and economically feasible systems of collection, including separate collection,
and disposal of urban solid waste.
-
By the year 2005, to develop programmes for the reduction and recycling of
urban solid waste.
- 10 -
Proposed activities at the National level
-
By the year 2000 to develop national plans and programmes for the reduction
at source and environmentally sound management of urban solid waste.
-
By the year 2005 to establish environmentally suitable and economically
feasible systems of collection and disposal of urban solid waste in cities and
urban agglomerations of more than 100,000 inhabitants.
-
To promote the reduction and recycling of urban solid waste.
5.1.3 Air Pollution
Air pollution is found in most cities in the region with populations exceeding 1 million;
air concentrations of particulate and lead often exceed WHO guidelines by a multiple of two to
five and annual average SO2 levels reach more than 100 micro g/m3 in many cities near
refineries, and high sulphur near fuel-oil-fired power plants and industries. Vehicles are a
major source of urban air pollution. Air pollution in cities has a substantial impact on health.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, the levels of air pollutants in cities shall be in conformity with
the provisions of the Protocol and other internationally agreed provisions.
-
By the year 2005, the levels of air pollutants in cities exceeding 100.000
inhabitants and in areas of concern shall be in conformity with the provisions of
the Protocol and other internationally agreed provisions.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
By the year 2005, to formulate and adopt air quality objectives for atmospheric
pollutants.
Proposed activities at the National level for mobile sources
-
To promote traffic management and give priority to the use of public transport.
-
To promote the use of lead-free petrol and low-level aromatic hydrocarbons
petrol.
-
To improve the inspection and maintenance of vehicles and the renovation of
the oldest vehicles (through economic incentives).
-
To pursue increased regional and domestic natural gas development in order
to substitute high sulphur fuel oil with natural gas and natural gas conversion
for urban proximities.
-
To promote the introduction of buses using gaseous fuel or other alternative
forms of energy instead of diesel oil.
-
To support and encourage the participation of the public transport services in
the above activities.
- 11 -
5.2
Industrial development
The industrial development of the Mediterranean countries varies greatly and its
capacity to generate pollution and cause damage to the environment is unanimously
recognized. From the thirty sectors of activity primarily considered in the Annex I of the LBS
Protocol, twenty-one are industrial.
On an international scale, priority has been given to toxic1 persistent and
bioaccumulable pollutants (TPBs) for their effects on human health, biodiversity and the
preservation of ecosystems and long-term and long-distance effects, and less attention is
paid to other pollutants, such as toxic and non-persistent or not-bioaccumulable substances,
suspended solids, biodegradable organic matter and nutrients, because their effects are
much more localized and less persistent. These pollutants are generated in large quantities
by industries and their discharge into the environment can cause damage to human health,
ecosystems, habitats and biodiversity.
Most countries in the region have an important public industrial sector which is
composed of large industries. Despite the diversity of situations and problems, the public
industrial sector in general includes: Energy production; Oil refineries; Petrochemicals; ;
Basic iron and steel metallurgy; Basic aluminium metallurgy; Fertilizer production; Paper and
paper pulp; Cement production.
A programme concerning the reduction and to the fullest possible extent elimination
of industrial pollution should be applied by all the industrial installations but it could start with
the public sector enterprises, which would set an example and encourage private companies.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, point source discharges and air emissions into the Protocol
Area from industrial installations to be in conformity with the provisions of the
Protocol and other agreed international and national provisions..
-
Over a period of 10 years, to reduce by 50 % discharges, emissions and
losses of substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate
from industrial installations.
-
Over a period of 10 years, to reduce by 50% discharges, emissions and
losses of polluting substances from industrial installations in hot spots and
areas of concern.
The public industrial sector shall share these targets.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
By the year 2005, to formulate and adopt guidelines for industrial waste water
treatment and disposal.
1
Toxicity includes endocrine disrupting effects
- 12 -
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, environmental quality
criteria and objectives, and emission limit values for point source discharges
into water or air.
-
To develop programmes for sharing and exchanging technical information and
advice regarding environmentally sound waste water treatment and facilities,
including the use of treated waste water, sludge and waste.
-
To promote research programmes to identify and validate waste water
treatment technologies.
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BAT, BEP and clean technology for
industries.
-
To support the development and application of the Environmental Management
and Audit Schema (EMAS and ISO 14000).
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To make or update in as short a period as possible an inventory of point
source discharges and emissions of pollutants in hot spots and areas of
concern.
-
To make or update in as short a period as possible an inventory of point
source discharges and emissions of pollutants from the public industrial
sector.
-
To prepare or update and adopt, as soon as possible, national regulations
concerning point source discharges of industrial waste water into the Protocol
Area which takes into account the guidelines, common criteria and standards
adopted by the Parties.
-
To give priority to the environmental problems of small and medium-size
companies, favouring the creation of associations in order to minimize waste
generation and achieve a joint handling of their wastewater.
-
To reduce discharges and emissions of pollutants as much as possible and,
in order to do so, to promote the implementation of environmental audits and
apply BEP and, if possible, BAT in industrial installations that are source of
pollutants.
5.2.1 Substances that are Toxic, Persistent and liable to Bioaccumulate (TPB)
Substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate include organic and
inorganic substances. The former are called "Persistent Organic Pollutants" and the latter
include some heavy metals (Hg, Cd and Pb) and some organometallic compounds.
a)
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a set of organic compounds that: (I)
possess toxic characteristics, including effects on the function of the endocrine system, (ii)
are persistent, (iii) are liable to bioaccumulate, (iv) are prone to long-range transport and
- 13 -
deposition, and (v) can result in adverse environmental and human health effects at locations
near and far from their source. POPs are typically characterized as having low water
solubility and high fat solubility. Most POPs are anthropogenic in origin. Anthropogenic
emissions, both point and diffuse, are associated with industrial precesses, product use and
applications, waste disposal, leaks and spills, and combustion of fuels and waste materials.
Once dispersed, clean-up is rarely possible. Because many POPs are relatively volatile, their
remobilisation and long-distance redistribution through atmospheric pathways often
complicate the identification of specific sources.
POPs have long environmental half-lives. Accordingly, successive releases over time
result in the continued accumulation and ubiquitous presence of POPs in the global
environment.
The primary transport routes into the marine and costal environment include
atmospheric deposition and surface run-off. Regional and global transport is predominately
mediated by atmospheric circulation, but also occurs through sediment transport and oceanic
circulation. Movements may also occur through a successive migration of short-range
movements resulting from a sequence of volatilization, deposition and revolatization
processes. Due to these transport patterns and chemical characteristics, there is growing
evidence of the systematic migration of these substances to cooler latitudes.
Consistent with decision 18/32 adopted by the UNEP Governing Council in May 1995
and with the Global Programme of Action (Washington, 1995), the LBS Protocol states in
Annex I:
(i)
"In preparing action plans, programmes and measures, the Parties, in
accordance with the Global Programme of Action, will give priority to
substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate, in particular
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), as well as to wastewater treatment and
management";
(ii)
"The following categories of substances and sources of pollution will serve as
guidance in the preparation of action plans, programmes and measures: 1.
Organohalogen compounds and substances which may form such
substances in the marine environment. Priority will be given to DDT; Aldrin,
Dieldrin, Endrin; Chlordane; Heptachlor; Mirex; Toxaphene;
Hexachlorobenzene; PCBs; Dioxins and Furans".
a.1.
Twelve Priority POPs. The twelve substances identified by the LBS Protocol
are organochlorine compounds and can be divided into three groups:
i)
Pesticides: DDT; Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin; Chlordane; Heptachlor; Mirex;
Toxaphene; and Hexachlorobenzene.
ii)
industrial chemicals: PCBs (polychlorobiphenyles) and
iii)
unwanted contaminants: Hexachlorobenzene; Dioxins and Furans.
Pesticides. The use of the nine pesticides mentioned above is almost completely
prohibited in the Mediterranean Region. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is a fungicide which was
used for treating seeds and for preserving wood. It is also an unwanted contaminant of the
manufacture of industrial chemical products, such as carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene
- 14 -
and pentachlorobenzene, and it is an impurity present in several pesticides, such as
pentachlorophenol (PCP) and others.
Industrial chemicals. PCBs or polychlorobiphenyles are mixtures of chlorinated
hydrocarbons which have been extensively used since 1930 as dielectrics in transformers
and condensers and to a lesser extent as hydraulic liquids and nonconductors. Certain PCB
substitutes are also dangerous and should be assessed.
Unwanted contaminants: Hexachlorobenzene; Dioxins and Furans.
Hexachlorobenzene is also a contaminant resulting from the manufacture of some industrial
chemical products, as indicated above (see "Pesticides").
Dioxines and Furans. The terms dioxins and furans are used to describe two groups
of environmental pollutants: polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDF). Of these 210 different substances, the real toxins are the 17 isomers
with chlorine substituted in the 2,3,7,8 positions, the most toxic is the 2, 3, 7, 8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8 TCDD), the toxicity of the other 16 compounds are
related with the toxicity of this substance.
Dioxins and furans have no use as such, but they can be found as contaminants in
some products and can be produced in combustion processes. The sources of dioxins and
furans can be of natural or human origin. Natural sources include forest fires, volcanic
eruptions or enzymatic and photolytic reactions. Studies of sediment cores in lakes near
industrial centres have shown that dioxins and furans were quite low until about 1920. These
studies show increases in concentration of dioxins and furans from 1920 to 1970. Declining
concentrations have been measured since that time. These trends correspond to
chlorophenol production trends. There is no doubt today that the presence of compounds of
dioxins and furans in the environment occurs primarily as a result of anthropogenic
practices.
The most important anthropogenic sources of dioxins and furans are:
i)
Combustion installations: incineration of urban, industrial and hospital waste,
combustion of residual sludges, fossil power plants;
ii)
small combustion sources: car engines, domestic heating;
iii)
the manufacture and use of certain pesticides, especially chlorophenoxyacids
(2.4-D and 2.4.5-T), chlorinated phenols and PCBs, in which they are found as
impurities;
iv)
other processes, such as paper pulp bleaching, the metallurgy of metals, the
recovery of metals, mainly copper wire and electric motors and copper and
aluminium turnings;
v)
accidents: fires involving chlorinated materials, mainly chlorophenols and
PCB.
- 15 -
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2010, to phase out inputs of the 9 pesticides and PCBs and
reduce to the fullest possible extent inputs of unwanted contaminants:
hexachlorobenzene, dioxins and furans.
-
By the year 2005, to reduce 50 % inputs of the priority 12 POPs.
-
By the year 2005, to collect and dispose all PCB waste in a safe and
environmentally sound manner.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To provide Contracting Parties with technical information and advice on the
nine pesticides and PCB substitutes and make appropriate recommendations.
-
To develop programmes for sharing and exchanging technical information and
advice regarding the environmentally sound disposal of the existing quantities
of the nine pesticides and PCBs. These Programmes should consider their
progressive elimination, including the decontamination of equipment and
containers.
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BEP and if possible BAT by the
point sources of dioxins and furans mentioned in the preceding page.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To make, over a period of two years, an inventory of quantities and uses of the
nine pesticides and PCBs, as well as of the industries which manufacture or
condition them.
-
By the year 2000, to phase out the use of the nine pesticides, except those
uses which involve the safeguarding of human life when the latter is in danger
or when a risk/benefit analysis is very conclusive, according to WHO
recommendations.
-
By the year 2000, to prohibit the manufacture, trade and new use of PCBs and
by the year 2010 all existing uses of PCBs.
-
To prepare pilot programmes aimed at the safe disposal of the PCBs; these
programmes should consider their progressive elimination, including the
decontamination of equipment and containers.
-
By the year 2000, to organize the collection and environmentally sound
disposal of the existing quantities of the nine pesticides.
-
To reduce the emission of HCB, dioxins and furans as much as possible and,
in order to do so, to promote the implementation of environmental audits and
apply BEP and if possible BAT to the processes which generate these
compounds, such as waste-incineration or recovery of metals, mainly copper
wire and electric motors.
- 16 -
a.2.
Other POPs. The Working Group on Strategies of the Convention on Long-
Range Transboundary Air Pollution is preparing a draft Protocol on POPs and noted that, with
one reservation, there was general agreement on the inclusion into the protocol of the 12
substances, named here "Priority 12", plus PAHs, hexabromobiphenyl and chlordecone,
while short-chain chlorinated paraffins, lindane and pentachlorophenol required further
examination.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). The group PAHs contains hundreds of
substances occurring naturally in oil in ppm levels. PAHs are also formed from the
incomplete combustion of organic matter and this process is the main source of PAHs in air.
PAHs with a molecular weight exceeding 228 are almost completely bound to particles in the
air. Also in the aquatic environment PAHs are mainly bound to particles due to their low
solubility in water.
In the preparation of the draft Protocol on POPs, the following definition for PAHs has
been proposed: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, are organic compounds made of two or
more condensed benzene rings; and the following six compounds have been proposed as
reference substances : fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene,
benzo(k)fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3.cd)pyrene and benzo(g,h,i)perylene, named the six
Borneff PAHs. Other proposal expand the list to 10, 12, 15, 16 or 22 PAHs compounds. In
general benzo(a)pyrene is the most commonly used reference substance for PAHs.
The most important sources of PAHs are:
a)
Point source: Primary aluminium industry; Power generation; Iron and steel
industry; Ferroalloy industry; Shipyards; Petroleum refineries; Creosote
production; Production of creosote treated timber; Asphaltic plants and Coke
ovens; Cable burning.
b)
Diffuse sources: Road construction; Road traffic; Use of creosote treated
timber; Domestic coal and wood combustion.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, to phase out to the fullest possible extent inputs of PAHs.
-
By the year 2010, to reduce by 25 % inputs of PAHs.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BEP and BAT by the point and
diffuse sources of PAHs mentioned in the previous paragraph.
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, emission values for
point source discharges and emissions of PAHs.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To promote the implementation of environmental audits in the industrial
installations that are sources of PAHs mentioned in the previous paragraph
and located in selected hot spots.
- 17 -
-
To reduce the emission of PAHs as much as possible and, in order to do so,
to apply BEP and if possible BAT to the processes which generate these
compounds.
b)
Heavy metals (Hg, Cd, Pb) and Organometallic compounds
b.1.
Heavy metals (Hg, Cd and Pb)
The Working Group on Strategies of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary
Air Pollution is preparing a draft Protocol on Heavy Metals and noted that there was general
agreement on the inclusion into the protocol of mercury, cadmium, lead and their
compounds.
Mercury. The most important industrial sources of mercury are: combustion of coal in
power plants; chlor/alkali production; manufacture and disposal of batteries; waste
incineration and roasting and smelting in non-ferrous metal smelters.
Cadmium. The most important industrial sources of cadmium are: zinc and lead
metal processing; electroplating; the production of cadmium compounds; pigment production;
the manufacture and disposal of batteries; the production of stabilizers for plastics and
phosphate fertilizers.
Lead. The most important industrial sources of lead are: lead metallurgy; the
manufacture and disposal of batteries; additives for petrol; enamels and ceramic glazes and
glass manufacture.
Mercury, cadmium and lead reach the environment through liquid discharges and
atmospheric emissions.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, to phase out to the fullest possible extent discharges and
emissions and losses of heavy metals (mercury, cadmium and lead).
-
By the year 2005, to reduce by 50 % discharges, emissions and losses of
heavy metals (mercury, cadmium and lead).
-
By the year 2000, to reduce by 25 % discharges, emissions and losses of
heavy metals (mercury, cadmium and lead).
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BAT and BEP in the industrial
installations that are sources of heavy metals (mercury, cadmium and lead).
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, environmental quality
criteria and standards for point source discharges and emissions of heavy
metals (mercury, cadmium and lead).
- 18 -
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To reduce discharges and emissions of heavy metals as much as possible
and, in order to do so, to promote the implementation of environmental audits
and apply BEP and, if possible, BAT in the industrial installations that are
sources of heavy metals, giving priority to installations located in the selected
hot spots.
-
To prepare National Programmes on the reduction and control of pollution by
Heavy Metals.
-
To adopt at the national level and apply the common measures for preventing
mercury pollution adopted by the Parties in 1987 (releases into the sea, max.
conc. 0.050 mg/l).
-
To adopt and apply for the industries of the alkaline chloride electrolysis
sector, as well as the previous standard, the maximum value of 0.5 grams of
mercury in the water per tonne of chlorine production capacity installed.(brine
recirculation), 5 grams of mercury in the water per tonne (lost brine
technology) and, if possible, 2 g of mercury from total releases into water, air
and products).
-
To adopt at the national level and apply the anti-pollution common measures
for cadmium and cadmium compounds adopted by the Parties in 1989
(releases into the sea, max. conc. 0.2 mg/l).
-
To prepare environmental voluntary agreements to which authorities,
producers and users are committed on the basis of a reduction plan.
b.2.
Organometallic compounds
Organometallic compounds are compounds where one metal atom is covalently
bound to at least one carbon atom. These types of substances are often used as
intermediates in chemical industries. Several organometallic compounds decompose rapidly
in water and air and are thus less important as environmental contaminants, However, some
organometallic substances are sufficiently stable and used as pesticides or stabilizers in
other chemical products.
Organomercuric compounds. These compounds are used in dyes and as pesticides.
The use of these compounds has been drastically reduced in the last 20 years and the input
into the environment has therefore decreased.
Organolead compounds. Two compounds; tetramethyllead (TML) and tetraethyllead
(TEL), are of major interest due to the large quantities used as additives to petrol. TML and
TEL that evaporate from petrol are stable in air and almost insoluble in water, the
degradation product trialkyllead is soluble in water and toxic.
Organotin compounds. These compounds are formed by a tin atom bound to one,
two, three or four alkyl groups; of these, only the three-alkyltin is of commercial importance
today. Trialkyltin compounds (e.g. tributyltin oxide, tributyltin fluoride, triphenyltin hydroxide)
due to their biocide properties, are used as anti-fouling agent in paints for boats and wood
construction in water. They are also used as pesticide in agriculture and as disinfectants in
- 19 -
medicine, in cooling systems in industrial installations (power plants, oil refineries) and, due
to their physico-chemical properties, as a stabilizing agent for PVC. Trialkyltin compounds
are lipophilic, very toxic and stable, and their use as antifouling paints and in cooling systems
is restricted.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2010, to phase out to the fullest possible extent discharges, emissions
and losses of organomercuric compounds and reduce to the fullest possible extent
those of organolead and organotin compounds.
-
By the year 2010, to reduce by 50 % discharges, emissions and losses of
organometallic compounds.
-
To phase out by the year 2005 the use of organomercuric compounds.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for BAT and BEP in industrial installations that are sources of
organometallic compounds.
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, environmental quality criteria
and standards for point source discharges and emissions of organometallic
compounds.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To reduce discharges and emissions of organometallic compounds as much as
possible and, in order to do so, to promote the implementation of environmental audits
and apply BEP and, if possible, BAT in industrial installations that are sources of
organometallic compounds.
-
To promote the use of lead-free petrol.
-
To make an inventory of the uses and quantities of organomercuric used.
-
To adopt at the national level and apply the anti-pollution common measures for the
organotin compounds adopted by the contracting Parties in 1989.
-
To phase out the use of organotin compounds as anti-fouling agents in cooling
systems.
5.2.2 Other heavy metals
Besides mercury, cadmium and lead, other heavy metals have characteristics that
can represent a danger for the marine environment; they are zinc, copper and chrome and
their compounds.
Zinc. The most important industrial sources of zinc are: zinc and brass metallurgy;
covering of metallic surfaces; galvanizing of steel; manufacture of viscose; and rayon and the
manufacture and disposal of batteries.
- 20 -
Copper. The most important industrial sources of copper are: copper metallurgy;
covering of metallic surfaces; electric cables; and pesticides.
Chrome. The most important industrial sources of chrome are: chrome metallurgy;
covering of metals; tanneries; textile and wool dyeing; corrosion inhibitors in closed cycle
cooling systems.
Proposed targets
-
To eliminate to the fullest possible extent pollution of the Mediterranean Sea
caused by discharges, emissions and losses of zinc, copper and chrome.
-
By the year 2010, to reduce discharges, emissions and losses of zinc,
copper and chrome.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BAT and of BEP in industrial
installations which are sources of zinc, copper and chrome.
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, environmental quality
criteria and standards for point source discharges and emissions of zinc,
copper and chrome.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To reduce discharges and emissions of zinc, copper and chrome as much as
possible and, in order to do so, to promote the implementation of
environmental audits and apply Best Environmental Practice and, if possible,
Best Available Techniques in industrial installations which are sources of zinc,
copper and chrome, giving priority to installations located in the selected hot
spots.
-
To adopt at the national level and apply the common measures to control
pollution caused by zinc, copper and their compounds adopted by the Parties
in 1996 (releases into the sea, max. conc. 1.0 mg/l for zinc and 0.5 mg/l for
copper).
5.2.3 Organohalogen compounds
Organohalogen compounds consist of a wide group of organic substances with
different levels of chloration, and a very diverse uses, from plastics to pesticides. Some
organohalogen compounds can be produced by living organisms, mainly microorganisms.
However, their presence in the environment occurs primarily as a result of anthropogenic
activities. The production and use of these compounds may have negative environmental
effects. The most dangerous have been treated in the chapter on POPs. This chapter deals
with the organohalogen compounds that can have negative environmental effects which
require their reduction, control and monitoring.
- 21 -
The organohalogen compounds can be divided into:
a)
Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Chlorinated solvents. Chlorinated solvents are commercially produced in large
quantities; the most commonly used solvents are: dichloromethane (methylene chloride);
1,1,1-trichloroethane; trichloroethylene; and tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene).
European production of these four solvents was approximately 400.000 tonnes/year in 1994,
and world production was around 1 million tonnes in 1992.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane has been a preferred solvent for the "cold cleaning" of
components in a variety of industries. As a result of its ozone depletion potential, its use has
been prohibited by the Montreal Protocol since 1996.
Trichloroethylene is very widely used as a solvent for metal surface preparation
within the engineering industry and Perchloroethylene is the principal solvent used for dry
cleaning and for degreasing metals.
1,2-dichloroethane is used in the chemical industry as an intermediary in vinylchloride
production. This substance is also used in the pharmaceutical and rubber industries.
Vinylchloride is used in the production of polyvinylchloride (PVC). The total PVC market in the
world is about 20 million tonnes. Emissions of 1.2 dichloroethane and vinylchloride takes
place almost exclusively into the atmosphere.
The residue obtained after polymerization of vinylchloride is called EDC-tar (ethylene
dichloride tar). Volumes of about 70.000 tonnes of EDC-tar may be produced every year in
north-western Europe only. EDC-tar was, until mid-seventies, dumped in the Nord Sea and
other seas. It is currently used to recover solvents and other chemical components before
incineration. Incomplete combustion of EDC-tar results in the formation of new more stable
chlorinated substances emitted as gas.
Trichloromethane (Chloroform). Most chloroform is used for the production of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It is also used as a solvent in the pharmaceutical and bandages
industries and as an intermediate in the production of paints and pesticides. The chlorination
of swimming pools and drinking water also leads to the formation of trichloromethane, which
is also formed by the decomposition of 1,2 dichloromethane in the exhaust fumes of motor
vehicles and by the decomposition of trichloroethene in the atmosphere. Atmospheric
emissions account for the largest part of the overall emissions and the chemical industry in
particular is responsible for trichloromethane emissions.
Chlorinated Paraffins (CP). Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are commercial products of
polychlorinated alkanes with carbon chain lengths of C10 to C30. CP are lipophilic
substances with very low water solubility.
The most important industrial uses of chlorinated paraffins are: plasticizers of paints
and coatings; plasticizers of sealing products; fluids for working on metals; flame retardants
for rubber, plastic materials and textiles. The world production of CPs is estimated at 300.000
tonnes.
This class of chlorinated aliphatic compounds is of low volatility and the distribution of
CP is mainly due to aquatic transport where CPs are most probably are absorbed by
particles and surface film. The CP more dangerous for the environment are the short-chain
- 22 -
chlorinated paraffins, especially paraffins with a chain length of between 10 and 13, whose
chlorine content is greater than 50% of their weight. CPs may contaminate the environment
as such, but can also form other serious pollutants, e.g. when are processed at high
temperatures.
b)
Halogenated Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Chlorobenzenes. All chlorinated benzenes are used in chemical industries. Mono-, di-
, and trichlorobenzenes was utilized as solvents and chemical intermediates in pesticides
and pharmaceuticals. Large quantities of chlorinated benzenes are produced every year. 1,4
dichlorobenzene is also used as a pesticide and air freshener, tri and tetrachlorobenzenes
have been used as PCB replacement agents in transformers and capacitors and in heat
transfer media.
Chlorobenzenes are also produced unintentionally in a number of industrial
processes, e.g. in the manufacture of magnesium and in the manufacture of chlorinated
solvents and pesticides. Clorobenzenes are mainly transported in the air due to their volatility
and the risk to aquatic ecosystems is therefore considered to be negligible.
Hexachlorobenzene has been treated as a priority POP.
Polychlorinated naphtalenes (PCNs). PCNs are still produced, even though large-
scale production has ceased. Commercial PCN products are mixtures of naphtalenes
substituted with 1-8 chlorine atoms. PCNs are used as insulating material in capacitors, fire
retardants, wood preservatives and pesticides. Polychlorinated naphtalenes are formed by
the combustion of materials containing organohalogen material and during the production of
magnesium.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polybrominated biphenyls. Pentabrominated
diphenyl ether (PBDEs) and Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) are used exclusively as flame
retardants in electronics, textiles and engineering plastics. The worldwide production of
PBDEs in 1990 was estimated at 4000 tonnes and the production of decabromobiphenyl is
around 1000 tonnes.
The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) has made the following
recommendations:
"Persistence in the environment and accumulation in organisms suggest that
commercial PDBEs should not be used";
"Human beings and the environment should not be exposed to PBBs in view of their
high persistence and bioaccumulation and potential adverse effects at very low levels
after long-term exposure. Therefore, PBBs should no longer be used commercially".
c)
Chlorinated Phenolic Compounds
Chlorophenolic compounds are chlorinated aromatic substances with one or several
hydroxy groups, bound to aromatic nuclei. Their acidic character influences the behaviour of
these compounds in the aquatic environment considerably, depending on the pH- value of the
receiving water bodies. Chlorophenols are toxic compounds effecting primarily the energy
metabolism.
- 23 -
Chlorophenols, and mainly pentachlorophenol, have been used extensively- and are
still used in many countries- as pesticides (mainly fungicides and bactericides) in wood
protection. The main releases of chlorinated phenols into the aquatic environment are derived
from the use of pentachlorophenol and from discharges of bleaching effluents from pulp mills.
The two dominating factors influencing the formation of chlorophenols are the amount of
elemental chlorine used and the lignin content of the unbleached pulp. This process in the
formation of chlorinated phenols, guaiacols and catechols. Chlorophenols may be a source
of dioxins.
d)
Organohalogenated Pesticides
A number of different organohalogenated compounds are used as pesticides. All
these compounds have some toxic characteristics and some of them can disrupt the
endocrine systems of humans and wildlife and must be used with caution; the reduction of
their use must therefore be a primary target. The POPs and chlorophenols that are used as
pesticides are mentioned above. The pesticides not yet mentioned and identified as more
dangerous for the marine environment are the Lindane and the Chlorophenoxy acids.
The insecticide Lindane is the gamma isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH). The
alpha and beta isomers are also present in the raw product and contribute to environmental
contamination. The beta isomer is the most persistent compound.
Chlorophenoxy acids,(2,4 D and 2,4,5 T) are widely used and have caused
contamination of ground water. To date they have not been detected in samples from the
marine environment. The relationship between these pesticides and dioxins is a matter of
concern.
Proposed targets
-
To eliminate to the fullest possible extent pollution of the Mediterranean Sea
caused by discharges, emissions and losses of organohalogen compounds.
-
By the year 2010, to reduce discharges, emissions and losses into the
Mediterranean Sea of organohalogen compounds.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BAT and of BEP in industrial
installations which are sources of organohalogen compounds.
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, environmental quality
criteria and standards for point source discharges and emissions of
organohalogen compounds.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To reduce discharges and emissions of organohalogen compounds as much
as possible and, in order to do so, to promote the implementation of
environmental audits and apply Best Environmental Practice and, if possible,
Best Available Techniques in the industrial installations which are sources of
organohalogen compounds, giving priority to installations located in the
selected hot spots.
- 24 -
-
To prepare National Programmes on the reduction and control of pollution by
organohalogen compounds.
-
To adopt at the national level and apply the anti-pollution common measures
adopted by the Parties.
-
To regulate releases of organochlorines by the paper and paper pulp industries
by limiting discharges measured as AOX (adsorbable organic halogen) to 1
kg per tonne of pulp produced and by reducing it further through the promotion
of alternative bleaching to molecular chlore and the use of BAT and BEP.
-
To make an inventory of the uses and quantities of chlorinated paraffins and to
reduce the use of short-chain chlorinated paraffins.
-
To make an inventory of the uses and quantities of pesticides.
-
To reduce and control the manufacture and use of PDBEs and PBBs.
-
To reduce and control the manufacture and use of certain pesticides, such as
lindane, 2.4-D and 2.5-T herbicides, and tri-, tetra- and penta chlorophenols,
used in the treatment of wood.
-
To participate in the programmes and activities of international organizations,
especially FAO on the sustainable use of pesticides and to promote integrated
pest management.
-
To participate in the OECD/FAO Pesticide Risk Reduction Project.
-
To prepare environmental voluntary agreements to which authorities,
producers and users are committed on the basis of a reduction plan.
5.2.4 Radioactive Substances
Radioactive substances have entered and/or are entering the marine environment,
directly or indirectly, as a result of a variety of human activities and practices. These activities
include the production of energy, reprocessing of spent fuel, military operations, nuclear
testing, medical applications and other operations associated with the management and
disposal of radioactive waste and the processing of natural materials by industrial processes.
Other activities, such as the transport of radioactive material, pose risks of such releases.
Radioactive materials can present hazards to human health and to the environment.
Proposed target
-
To eliminate to the fullest possible extent inputs of radioactive substances.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To transmit to the Parties reports and other information received in
accordance with the Convention and the Protocol.
- 25 -
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To promote policies and practical measures including the setting of targets
and timetables to minimize the generation of radioactive waste and provide for
their safe processing, storage, conditioning, transportation and disposal.
-
To adopt measures, including BAT and BEP, for the reduction and/or
elimination of discharges, emissions and losses of radioactive substances to
the Mediterranean Sea.
-
To submit reports on: the authorizations granted, data resulting from
monitoring, quantities of pollutants discharged from their territories and the
action plans, programmes and measures implemented.
5.2.5 Nutrients and Suspended Solids
The effects of the enrichment of water by nutrients are enhanced productivity but
these can result in changes in species diversity, excessive algal growth, dissolved oxygen
reductions and associated fish kills and, it is suspected, the increased prevalence or
frequency of toxic and other species algal blooms. This process is linked to the
"eutrophication" phenomena.
Eutrophication can result from an augmentation of nutrient inputs to coastal and
marine areas as a consequence of human activities. Marine eutrophication is mainly an
inshore problem that affects lagoons, harbours, estuaries and coastal areas which are
adjacent to river mouths of highly populated river basins and/or which receive sewage from
coastal cities.
The main anthropogenic sources of nutrients are: a) Municipal sewage; b) Industrial
waste water; c) Agriculture; and d) Atmospheric emissions.
a)
Municipal Sewage (see point 5.1.1)
b)
Industrial waste water
Many industries produce liquid waste with similar characteristics to domestic waste
water. Their main pollutants are: Biodegradable Organic Matter, Nutrients (Nitrogen and
Phosphorus), and Suspended Solids, which can be treated with similar techniques. Their
pollution load may be reported to population-equivalent and measured as Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) load.
The most important sources of these substances are:
i)
Manufacture of Food and Beverages: Slaughtering, preparing and preserving
meat; Manufacture of dairy products; Canning & preserving of fruit and
vegetables; Canning, preserving & processing of fish, crustaceans and similar
foods; Manufacture of vegetable oils and fats; Sugar factories and refineries;
Distillation; Wine production; Beer manufacture;
ii)
manufacture of Textiles: Wool processing and Cotton processing;
iii)
tanneries and the leather finishing industry;
- 26 -
iv)
paper and paper-pulp industry;
v)
Phosphatic Fertilizers industry;
vi)
Pharmaceutical industry: Basic substances (Fermentation and extraction
processes;
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, to dispose all waste water from industrial installations which
are sources of BOD, nutrients and suspended solids, in conformity with the
provisions of the LBS Protocol.
-
Over a period of 10 years, to reduce by 50 % inputs of BOD, nutrients and
suspended solids from industrial installations sources of these substances
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BAT and BEP in industrial
installations which are sources of BOD, nutrients and suspended solids.
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt, as appropriate, environmental quality
criteria and standards for point source discharges of BOD, nutrients and
suspended solids.
-
By the year 2010, to formulate and adopt guidelines for waste water treatment
and waste disposal from industries which are sources of BOD, nutrients and
suspended solids.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To reduce discharges of pollutants as much as possible and, in order to do
so, to promote the implementation of environmental audits and apply BEP and,
if possible, BAT in the industrial installations which are sources of BOD, giving
priority to installations located in hot spots.
-
To develop National Programmes for the environmentally sound management
of waste water and solid waste from industrial installations which are sources
of BOD, and to this end to ensure:
i)
By the year 2005, that at least industrial installations which are
sources of BOD, nutrients and suspended solids, located in areas of
concern, dispose all waste water in conformity with national regulation
system;
ii)
to locate coastal outfalls so as to obtain or maintain agreed
environmental quality criteria and to avoid the exposure of sensitive
environments (such as lagoons, seagrass beds, etc.) to excess
nutrient or suspended solid loads;
- 27 -
iii)
To promote primary, secondary and, where appropriate and feasible,
tertiary treatment of BOD waste water discharged into rivers, estuaries
and the sea;
iv)
To promote sound operation and proper maintenance of facilities.
v)
The reduction and beneficial use of waste water or other solutions
appropriate to specific sites, such as no-water and low-water solutions;
vi)
The identification of the availability and sustainability of productive uses
of waste water sludge, and other waste, such as land-spreading,
composting, energetic uses, animal feed, etc.;
vii)
To prepare environmental voluntary agreements to which authorities,
producers and users are committed on the basis of a reduction plan.
c)
Agriculture
The nutrient load from agriculture, mainly intensive agriculture, represents a high
proportion of the total anthropogenic load of nutrients to the coastal zones.
Intensive agriculture, which encompasses high crop production or high density animal
husbandry, can be a major contributor to nutrients due either to the use of large quantities of
fertilizers, or the production of high amounts of solid and liquid manure by farm animals.
Intensive aquaculture can also be a source of nutrients through dispersion of food and
excretions from the organisms.
Soil erosion and desertification are one of the most serious problems affecting the
region and their contribution to the nutrient budget and sediment load may be important.
Proposed target
-
To reduce nutrient inputs, from agriculture and aquaculture practices into
areas where these inputs are likely to cause pollution.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To participate in the programmes and activities of international organizations,
especially FAO, on sustainable agricultural and rural development in the
Mediterranean.
-
To participate in the FAO programme on the sustainable use of fertilizers and
to encourage the preparation of national and regional strategies based on the
controlled, appropriate and rational use of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides.
-
To prepare guidelines for the application of BEP (including good agricultural
practices) for the rational use of fertilizers and the reduction of losses of
nutrients from agriculture.
- 28 -
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To assess the quantities and types of fertilizers used.
-
To assess the quantity of solid and liquid manure produced by farm animals.
-
To promote the rational use of fertilizers and reduce the losses of nutrients by
misuse of inorganic fertilizers and manure.
-
To promote ecological agriculture and ecological aquaculture.
-
To promote rules of good agricultural practices.
-
To participate in the programmes and activities of international organizations,
especially FAO, on sustainable agricultural and rural development in the
Mediterranean.
-
To promote the implementation of the Convention on Desertification.
d)
Atmospheric Emissions
An estimate of the emissions of nitrogen (NOx and NH3) into the atmosphere from the
territories of the Mediterranean countries is 4 million tonnes of N/yr, 50% NOx 50 % NH3.
NOx emissions are strongly dependent on fossil fuel combustion, (93% of the total) including
54% from road transport. 80% of the atmospheric ammonia emissions are produced by the
microbial decomposition of wastes from livestock and 10% of NH3 input is related to the
application of nitric fertilizers. Deposition on the Mediterranean Sea of airborne nitrogen has
been estimated at 1 million t/y, which is similar to riverine inputs.
An estimate of atmospheric deposition of phosphorus into the North-Western
Mediterranean suggests that it could be about 16 kt/y, with the riverine input being 40.5 kt/y.
These important quantities of nutrients are spread on the Mediterranean Sea surface
and an estimate of deposition on the Mediterranean of nitrogen and phosphorus in g/m2/y is
1.5 -+0.5 N and 0.15 -+ 0.05 P. From these figures it may be concluded that Mediterranean
waters are not endangered by the atmospheric deposition of nutrients.
5.2.6 Hazardous Wastes
The definition of hazardous waste is complicate. The waste products which are
normally considered to be hazardous are those listed in the annex or annexes to the legal
documents in question e.g. the Protocol concerning transboundary movements of dangerous
waste products, signed in 1996, or the Basel Agreement on the same subject.
Hazardous wastes may affect the marine environment through direct or indirect
discharges of raw waste products into the sea, or through releases into the atmosphere or
into water of pollutants which may be generated in the process of disposal or treating these
waste products. Special attention should be paid to the proper management and disposal of
stocks of obsolete chemicals.
- 29 -
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, to dispose all hazardous wastes in a safe and
environmentally sound manner and in conformity with the provisions of the
LBS Protocol and other international agreed provisions.
-
Over a period of 10 years, to reduce as far as possible by 20 % the generation
of hazardous waste from industrial installations.
-
By the year 2010, to dispose 50 % of the hazardous waste generated, in a safe
and environmentally sound manner and in conformity with the provisions of the
LBS Protocol and other internationally agreed provisions.
Proposed activities the Regional level
-
To prepare a Mediterranean Strategy for the Management of Hazardous
Wastes. This strategy will be based on the principles of prevention, reduction
and reuse, and the application of Best Available Techniques and Best
Environmental Practices for disposal; the regulation of transport and the
remedial actions will be taken into account.
-
To formulate and adopt common anti-pollution measures for hazardous
wastes.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To prepare a National Strategy for the Management of Hazardous Wastes.
This strategy will be based on the principles of prevention, reduction and
reuse, and the application of Best Available Techniques and Best
Environmental Practices for disposal; the regulation of transport and the
remedial actions will be taken into account.
-
To prepare National Plans for the Management of Hazardous Wastes. These
National Plans will include an evaluation of the quantities of hazardous wastes
produced and the financial resources necessary for their environmentally
sound collection and disposal.
-
The National Plans may include National or Regional Programmes for specific
wastes, National Programmes for military establishments and National
programmes for the public industrial sector.
-
To establish facilities for the environmentally sound disposal of hazardous
wastes.
-
To prepare environmental voluntary agreements to which authorities,
producers and users are committed on the basis of a reduction plan.
-
To ratify and apply the "Hazardous Wastes" Protocol.
- 30 -
a)
Obsolete Chemicals
Obsolete chemicals include stocks of banned organochlorine compounds, such as
Dieldrin and DDT, and stocks of chemicals which are out of date or out of use for any reason.
Proposed target
-
By the year 2005, to collect and dispose all obsolete chemicals in a safe and
environmentally sound manner.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To develop programmes for sharing and exchanging technical information and
advice regarding the environmentally sound disposal of obsolete chemicals.
These programmes should consider their progressive elimination, including
the decontamination of equipment and containers.
Proposed activities at the National level.
-
To intensify training programmes for the identification, handling and disposal of
obsolete chemicals.
-
To promote national inventories of stocks of obsolete chemicals
-
To prepare pilot programmes aimed at the safe disposal of obsolete
chemicals; these programmes should consider their progressive elimination,
including the decontamination of equipment and containers.
b)
Used lubricating oil (luboil)
The definition of used lubricating oils in the terms of the LBS Protocol, is given as "any
mineral-based lubricating oils which, through use, storage or handling, have become unfit for
the purpose for which they were originally intended, in particular used oils from combustion
engines and transmission systems, as well as mineral oils for machinery, turbines and
hydraulic systems".
The most important sources of used lubricating oils are: primary metallurgies; finished
metallic products; machinery; electrical materials; transport equipment; chemical products;
rubber and plastic; and motor vehicles. Used lubricating oils can be divided into three
categories:
i)
Used lubricating oils which may be reused after treatment;
ii)
Used lubricating oils contaminated by other substances (e.g. PCB); and
iii)
Industrial waste products contaminated by lubricating oils.
- 31 -
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2005, to collect and dispose 50 % of used lubricating oil in a safe
and environmentally sound manner.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To formulate and adopt a standard on the maximum amount of PCB an oil
may contain before it is considered to be contaminated (i.e. 50 mg/k).
Proposed activities at the National level
-
By the year 2000, to make an inventory of the quantities of the three categories
of luboil.
-
To prepare and adopt national pilot programmes for the collection, recycling
and disposal of used luboils.
-
To prepare and adopt national pilot programmes for the collection, recycling
and disposal of used luboils from the public services sector ( air, road and
railway transport, energy transport and distribution) and from military
establishments.
-
To adopt at the national level and apply the common anti-pollution measures
for luboils adopted by the Contracting Parties in 1989.
c)
Batteries
There are primary batteries and secondary or accumulator batteries. The first are
designed to supply only a continuous or intermittent discharge and cannot be effectively
recharged; secondary batteries can be recharged. The main types of primary batteries are:
traditional zinc-carbon batteries (Leclanche batteries), alkaline batteries, mercury batteries,
silver oxide batteries, zinc batteries, lithium batteries and nickel-cadmium batteries.
Secondary or accumulator batteries may be of the lead-acid type, which are most commonly
used in cars, or nickel-iron and nickel-cadmium alkaline batteries. Once batteries are used,
they are either thrown away or collected in order to recover the metals. In both cases, harm
may be done to the environment.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2025, to dispose all used batteries in a safe and environmentally
sound manner and in conformity with the provisions of the Protocol and other
internationally agreed provisions.
-
Over a period of 10 years, to reduce by 20 % the generation of used batteries.
-
By the year 2010, to dispose 50 % of used batteries in a safe and
environmentally sound manner and in conformity with the provisions of the
Protocol and other agreed international provisions.
- 32 -
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To promote national inventories of used batteries.
-
To prepare Pilot Programmes for the collection, recovery and safe disposal of
used batteries.
-
To promote substitution methods and encourage the reduction of the use of
batteries.
-
To prepare and adopt National Pilot Programmes for the collection, recycling
and disposal of used batteries from the public services sector ( air, road and
railway transport, energy transport and distribution) and from military
establishments.
5.3
Physical alterations and destruction of habitats
The increase of populations and economic activities in coastal areas is leading to an
expansion of construction and physical alterations to coastal areas and waters. The building
of ports and marinas, dredging operations, sand and aggregate extraction, the building of
coastal defences, the installation of pipelines and coastal outfalls, the restoration of beaches,
the erosion induced by inadequate land use and other activities linked to the urban,
agricultural and aquacultural expansion, are giving rise to alterations of wetlands, shore lands,
beachfronts and seafloors. Important habitats are being destroyed.
The damming of river systems may result in a reduction of freshwater and sediment
loads, with possible changes in estuarine conditions.
Proposed targets
-
To safeguard the ecosystem function, maintain the integrity and biological
diversity of species and habitats.
-
Where practicable, to restore marine and coastal habitats that have been
adversely affected by anthropogenic activities.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To formulate guidelines for the preservation of habitats and normal ecosystem
functions in coastal areas, particularly in the context of integrated coastal zone
management.
-
To develop programmes for integrated coastal zone management.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To support programmes for integrated coastal zone management.
-
To undertake studies on the potential effects on the environment or
Environmental Impact Assessment according to the importance of the
- 33 -
physical alterations and the distruction of habitats related to management
projects.
-
To establish a system of previous authorization by competent national
authorities for works which cause physical alterations of the natural state of
the coastline or the destruction of coastal habitats.
6. MONITORING
Assessment of pollution-related problems makes it possible to reduce possible
uncertainties when management decisions need to clarify links between inputs,
concentrations and the effects of pollutants. An environmental assessment of the
Mediterranean started in 1975 in the framework of MAP through its MED POL Programme.
Through the adoption of MED POL Phase III in 1996, the Programme now covers all the
aspects of monitoring, including trend and compliance monitoring and the monitoring of
biological effects.
In order to improve the assessment of the inputs of pollutants into the Mediterranean
Sea and to ensure compliance with the conditions laid down in authorizations and
regulations, the Authorities responsible should establish systems of monitoring and
inspection.
According to Article 6 of the LBS Protocol "The Parties shall provide for systems of
inspection to assess compliance with authorizations and regulations". In addition, "The
Parties establish appropriate sanctions in case of non-compliance with the authorizations and
regulations and ensure their application".
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2000, each Party will establish a monitoring programme of the
inputs of the priority pollutants identified in this Programme and of the quality of
the marine environment.
-
By the year 2000, the Parties will be establish a permanent river water
quality/quantity register.
-
By the year 2000, the Parties will establish systems of inspection.
-
By the year 2000, the Parties will establish a monitoring programme of
discharges and emissions of the priority pollutants identified in this
Programme and of the quality of the marine environment.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To prepare guidelines for local air pollution monitoring programmes in cities
and urban agglomerations exceeding one million inhabitants.
-
To develop guidelines for river monitoring programmes.
-
To promote the establishment of permanent registers of river quality and
quantity accessible to all Parties for selected rivers (about fifty).
- 34 -
-
To promote the establishment of a data bank on socio-economic indicators
related to sea and river quality and pollutant fluxes associated with the
Geographic Information System (GIS).
-
To promote the establishment of an inventory of major point atmospheric
sources following EMEP/CORINAIR guidelines.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
The establishment of inspection systems to ensure compliance with the
conditions laid down in the authorizations and regulations.
-
The establishment of monitoring programmes to evaluate the effectiveness of
actions and measures implemented under this Programme.
-
The establishment and improvement of local air pollution monitoring
programmes as a priority in cities and urban agglomerations exceeding one
million inhabitants.
-
The establishment and improvement of local and national monitoring
programmes to control and assess effluents discharge and the quality of the
marine environment.
-
The establishment and improvement of river monitoring programmes.
-
The establishment of permanent registers of river quality and quantity
accessible to all Parties on selected rivers (about fifty).
-
The establishment of a data bank on socio-economic indicators related to sea
and river quality and pollutants fluxes associated with a Geographic
Information System (GIS).
-
Improve the inventory of major point atmospheric sources following
EMEP/CORINAIR guidelines.
7. CAPACITY BUILDING
The activities proposed aim to improve, inter alia: the scientific base, environmental
policy formulation, professional human resources, institutional capacity and capability, both
public and private, implementation of environmentally sound technologies, the implementation
of policies for cleaner production and technical cooperation, including cooperation in the fields
of technology transfer and know-how process. All these measures come under the heading
of Capacity-building. As part of the above, the activities will be grouped into two categories:
-
To support, promote and facilitate programmes of assistance in the area of scientific,
technical and human resources;
-
To support, promote and facilitate, as appropriate, the capacity to apply, develop and
manage access to cleaner production technologies as well as the best available
techniques (BAT) and the best environmental practice (BEP).
- 35 -
The activities to be implemented for each category are to be considered at both
national and regional level. All the competent MAP structures will be used for their
implementation.
7.1
To support, promote and facilitate programmes of assistance in the area
of scientific, technical and human resources.
The primary objective is for each country, with the support of international
organizations, as appropriate, to identify the state of its scientific knowledge and its research
needs and priorities, in order to achieve, as soon as possible, substantial improvements in:
I)
Environmental management institutions.
ii)
The scientific base and strengthening of scientific and research capacities and
capabilities in areas relevant to the environment and, in particular, to priorities
established in the SAP.
iii)
Environmental policy formulation, building upon the best scientific knowledge
and assessments.
iv)
The interaction between scientific groups and governmental institutions, by
applying the precautionary approach, where appropriate, to decision-making.
v)
Monitoring, inspection and information systems.
In accordance with articles 9 and 10 of the LBS Protocol, the Parties shall cooperate
in scientific and technological fields related to pollution from land-based sources and
activities. To this end, the Parties shall formulate and implement, at the regional level, training
programmes, programmes of assistance and education in the area of scientific, technical
and human resources.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To support the establishment of networks to improve the exchange of
experience among Mediterranean experts, especially in the field of the
priorities established in the SAP to prevent marine degradation.
-
To formulate and support programmes of cooperation for capacity-building and
the development of institutions, including relevant technology and management
training, human resources (scientific and technical personal) and public
education. These programmes should give assistance to, inter alia,
environmental impact assessment, sustainable development planning,
environmental auditing and management, environmental education, etc.
-
To formulate and implement in the framework of MED POL capacity-building
programmes related to the assessment and control of marine pollution.
-
To assist in the formulation of projects eligible to be financed by international
financial donors.
-
To assist and advise on policies, strategies and practices that may contribute
to the implementation of the measures and targets included in the SAP.
- 36 -
-
To prepare a general manual with guidelines on urban policies directed
towards energy saving, non-polluting forms of transport, waste management,
the sustainable use of water and the creation of town amenities.
-
To prepare a river monitoring manual by the year 2000.
-
To prepare guidelines on linking socio-economic indicators to water quality
indicators through GIS to check pollution control.
7.2
To support, promote and facilitate, as appropriate, the capacity to apply,
develop and manage the access of cleaner production technologies as
well as the Best Available Techniques (BAT) and the Best Environmental
Practice (BEP)
The Parties should promote, and encourage the private sector to promote, effective
modalities for giving access to cleaner production technologies and for the application the
best available techniques and the best environmental practice with a view to preventing,
reducing or phasing out inputs of pollutants from selected land-based sources and activities.
To this end, the Parties should, at the national level, improve their up-to-date information,
experience and technical expertise.
Furthermore, there is a need for favourable access to and transfer of environmentally
sound technologies through supportive measures that promote technology cooperation and
the transfer of the necessary technological know-how, as well as building up economic,
technical and managerial capabilities for the efficient use and further development of
transferred technology. Successful long-term partnership in technology cooperation
necessarily requires continuing systematic training and capacity building at all levels over an
extended period of time.
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
To facilitate and promote access, in particular for countries in need of
assistance, to new and innovative technologies relevant to each selected land-
based source and activity, including those causing physical degradation and
the destruction of habitats.
-
To promote new information technologies that facilitate the transfer of
knowledge within countries and between States, including, in particular, from
developed countries to countries in need of assistance.
-
To prepare a general manual with guidelines on implementing cleaner
technologies, cleaner production and cleaner materials.
-
To prepare a general manual with guidelines on introducing alternatives to
priority POPs.
-
The establishment of networks to improve the exchange and transfer of
environmentally sound technologies among Mediterranean experts, especially
in the field of the priorities established in the SPA to prevent marine
degradation.
-
To enhance the access to and transfer of patent-protected environmentally
sound technology, in particular to developing countries.
- 37 -
-
To promote collaborative arrangements between enterprises of developed and
developing countries for the development of clean production technologies.
-
To promote join ventures between suppliers and recipients of technologies,
taking into account policy priorities and objectives of developing countries.
-
To assist and advise on environmental aspects of current technologies that
may contribute to the implementation of the measures and targets included in
the SAP.
-
To assist and advise on the preparation of reports that are required for the LBS
Protocol.
8. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Information and public participation are essential components of a sustainable
development and environmental policy.
Proposed targets
-
to provide to the general public access to the information available on the state
of the environment of the Mediterranean and its evolution, and the measures
taken to improve it;
-
to enhance the environmental awareness of pollution, and create a common
approach to the environmental problems of the Mediterranean;
-
to facilitate public access to activities for the protection and management of
the environment and to scientific knowledge;
-
to mobilize and ensure the participation and involvement of the major actors
concerned (local and provincial communities, economic and social groups,
consumers, etc.).
Proposed activities at the Regional level
-
to identify potential roles for Non-Governmental Organizations in the
implementation of the SAP and to ensure that all relevant IGOs and NGOs
have appropriate access to information concerning the SAP and its
application;
-
to implement coordinated information campaigns and special activities on
environmental protection;
-
to continue and expand publication and distribution of brochures, leaflets,
posters, reports, newsletters and other information materials, as well as the
use of the media in all its forms;
-
to enhance and strengthen the exchange of information and experience on the
environmental problems of the region, and to develop cooperation in this field.
- 38 -
9. REPORTING
In accordance with Article 13 of the LBS Protocol "The Parties shall submit reports
every two years, to the meeting of the Contracting Parties, through the Organization, of
measures taken, results achieved and if the case arises, of difficulties encountered in the
application of the Protocol"
Proposed activities at the Regional level
a)
To prepare and apply a unified reporting system on the application of
the provisions of the Convention, the Protocols and the SAP.
b)
To collect information on the levels and trends of loads of pollution
reaching the Mediterranean Sea.
c)
To collect information on the state of the treatment and the disposal of
liquid and solid wastes in the Protocol Area and to present such
information to the Contracting Parties.
d)
To publish a report on the State and Evolution of the Mediterranean
Environment at regular intervals .
e)
To develop public tracking and reporting systems of pollutants, known
generically as Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTRs), in
cooperation with OECD.
10. GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF NATIONAL ACTION PLANS
10.1 Introduction
One of the SAP Programme objectives is to provide the basic elements for the
formulation of guidelines for the preparation of national action plans (NAP) to address
pollution from land-based activities.
States should, in accordance with their policies, priorities and resources, develop or
review National Action Plans for LBS within 5 years and take action to implement these
programmes with the assistance of international cooperation, in particular for developing
countries. The effective development and implementation of National Action Plans should
focus on sustainable, pragmatic and integrated environmental management approaches and
processes, such as integrated coastal area management, harmonized, as appropriate, with
river basin management and land-use plans.
In the countries where National Environmental Action Plans (NEAPs) have been
adopted, the National Action Plans for LBS must be consistent with the NEAP.
The targets and activities identified in the SAP will be implemented through National
Action Plans to be drawn up by Parties. The NAPs will be crucial in identifying projets that can
be funded and implemented and therefore their formulation is the first priority.
- 39 -
10.2 Objectives
In general, the objectives of the NAPs are those of the SAP; in addition, countries can
identify some specific objectives related to particular problems.
NAP objectives are:
a)
The general objective of the NAP is, in accordance with article 5 of the LBS
Protocol, to eliminate pollution deriving from land-based sources and
activities, in particular to phase out inputs of the substances that are toxic,
persistent and liable to bioaccumulate listed in annex I to the Protocol.
b)
The specific objectives of the National Plans are:
-
Formulation of principles, approaches, measures, timetables and priorities for
action;
-
Preparation of a national priority list for intervention and investment
("investment portfolio");
-
Analysis of expected baseline and additional actions needed to resolve each
transboundary priority problem;
-
Identification of potential roles for Non-Governmental Organizations in the
implementation of the NAP.
10.3 Principles and Obligations
The principles and obligations identified in the SAP are also valid for the National
Plans. As part of them, the polluter pays principle may be immediately applied to new
installations and, progressively, to existing ones. However, in most existing installations it
will be necessary to facilitate economic interventions in order to apply the new standards and
quality objectives.
The new LBS Protocol brings a change in the strategy for the protection of the
Mediterranean environment. This new strategy is based on sustainability and its purpose is
to achieve the integrated prevention and control of pollution arising from land-based sources
and activities, in particular through the application of Best Available Techniques and Best
Environmental Practice.
10.4 National Diagnostic Analysis
The identification and assessment of problems is a necessary process which
combines five elements:
a)
Identification of the nature and severity of problems.
b)
Contaminants.
c)
Physical alterations and destruction of habitats.
d)
Sources of degradation.
e)
Areas of concern.
- 40 -
10.5 Establishment of National Priorities for Action
The establishment of national priorities for action will take into account the results of
the National Diagnostic Analysis and of the national reports on "hot spots", and "sensitive
areas" and will also take in account the LBS Protocol which, in Annex 1, states "In preparing
action plans, programmes and measures, the Parties, in accordance with the Global
Programme of Action, will give priority to substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to
bioaccumulate, in particular persistent organic pollutants (POPs), as well as to wastewater
treatment and management".
Priorities for action should be established by assessing the five elements described
above and should specifically reflect:
a)
the relative importance of impacts upon food security, public health, coastal
and marine resources, the health of the ecosystem and socio-economic
benefits, including cultural values; and
b)
the costs, benefits and feasibility of options for action, including the long-term
cost of no action.
10.6 Institutional aspects
10.6.1 Authorization or regulation
In accordance with Article 6 of the LBS Protocol, Point source discharges into the
Protocol Area, and releases into water or air that reach and may affect the Mediterranean
Area, as defined in article 3 of the Protocol, shall be strictly subject to regulation and if
necessary to authorization by the competent authorities of the Parties.
Regulations are needed for both point source discharges and releases into water or
air that reach and may affect the Mediterranean Area, and authorizations are required for:
(a)
Point source discharges of liquid effluents into the Protocol Area, that is the
Mediterranean Sea and the rivers of its hydrologic basin, which may affect the
Mediterranean Sea (municipal sewage discharges would not be included);
and
(b)
Point source discharges (emissions) into the atmosphere under the following
conditions:
I)
the discharged substance is or could be transported to the
Mediterranean Sea Area under prevailing meteorological conditions;
ii)
the input of the substance into the Mediterranean Sea Area is
hazardous for the environment in relation to the quantities of the same
substance reaching the Area by other means.
The Protocol allows one permit to be granted for liquid discharges and another for
emissions into the atmosphere. The approach of this programme, in keeping with the spirit of
the Protocol, is geared towards ensuring that the industrial installations which generate liquid,
- 41 -
gaseous and waste effluents have a single permit which covers all the types of pollution or,
should this not be possible, that the different permits are coordinated in order to avoid the
transfer of pollution from one environmental media to another.
The Protocol indicates that the activities listed in its Annex I will be primarily
considered for the preparation of action plans, programmes and measures, and it is logical to
assume that their discharges should be subject to authorizations and regulations. That is
why it is of prime importance to establish criteria to decide which industrial plants and which
specific urban settlements generate precise discharges which should merit a permit or
regulation.
During an initial stage, the system could be applied to all urban tourist settlements
with a population of more than 1000 residents and to all industrial plants selected in the Annex
I to the Protocol with more than 50 employees.
Point source discharges from existing installations and from new installations should
be differentiated. For the former, national regulations should be gradually adapted and, for the
latter, a system of prior authorization should be used taking into account the national
regulations.
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2000, all point source discharges and emissions from new
installations shall have prior authorization by the competent authorities.
-
By the year 2010, 50 % of discharges of waste water and air emissions from
industrial and urban installations shall be in conformity with national and
international regulations.
-
By the year 2025, all discharges of waste water and air emissions from land-
based sources and activities shall be in conformity with national and
international regulations.
Existing point source discharges and emissions
Proposed activities at the National level.
-
To prepare/review and adopt if necessary, over a period of one year, National
Regulations concerning point source discharges of domestic and industrial
wastewater into the sea and rivers, which take into account the common
guidelines, standards and criteria adopted by the Parties.
-
To prepare and adopt, over a period of two years, national regulations
concerning point source emissions into the air from industrial installations
which take into account the guidelines, criteria and standards adopted by the
Parties.
-
To make an inventory, in as short a period as possible, of point source
discharges and emissions in the hot spots and areas of concern.
-
To support the progressive implementation of national regulations by existing
industrial installations.
- 42 -
New point source discharges and emissions
Discharges and emissions from new establishments (industries and human
establishments) should have prior authorization listing the conditions under which releases
may be authorized. The authorization should be negotiated during the initial phase of the
project and Best Available Techniques and Best Environmental Practice should be taken into
account. If the project is likely to have significant consequences on the environment, it will be
necessary to evaluate the environmental impact.
The conditions imposed should take into account national regulations or the contents
of Annex II, as well as the measures already adopted by the Contracting Parties.
For foreign companies the Parties will take into account Agenda 21 Chapter 19.52 d)
"Governments, at the corresponding level and with the support of the competent international
and regional organizations, should: encourage large industrial companies, including
transnational and other companies, to adopt policies and to undertake to adopt standards of
application which are equivalent to, or no less strict than, those which are applied in their
countries of origin, in relation to the ecologically rational management of chemical products".
Proposed activities at the National level.
-
By the year 2000, all point source discharges from new establishments shall
have prior authorization by the competent authorities.
-
To undertake Environmental Impact Assessment for proposed activities that
are likely to cause a significant adverse impact on the marine environment and
are subject to an authorization by the competent national authorities.
10.7 Analysis of targets and activities
Despite the expected diversity of problems, interests and priorities across the
Mediterranean Sea, the targets and activities at national level identified in chapter 5 may be
adopted by the Parties as part of their NAP. In carrying out activities, the Contracting Parties
should take into account the objectives of:
-
Supporting the development and application of the Environmental Management and
Audit Scheme in the industrial sectors.
-
Promoting water-saving and the rational use of water in industry.
-
Promoting energy efficiency and the rational use of energy in industry.
-
Supporting the development and application of energy-saving technologies and
practices.
-
Developing a policy geared to taking into account the life cycle of products and the
development of cleaner products.
- 43 -
10.8 Monitoring and enforcement
In accordance with art.6 of the LBS Protocol "the Parties shall provided for systems of
inspection by their competent authorities to assess compliance with authorizations and
regulations". In addition, "The parties establish appropriate sanctions in case of non-
compliance with the authorizations and regulations and ensure their application".
Proposed targets
-
By the year 2000, each Party will establish a monitoring programme of the
inputs of the priority pollutants identified in this Programme and of the quality of
the marine environment.
-
By the year 2000, the Parties will establish a permanent river water
quality/quantity register.
-
By the year 2000, the Parties will establish systems of inspection.
-
By the year 2000, the Parties will establish a monitoring programme of
discharges and emissions of the priority pollutants identified in this
Programme and of the quality of the marine environment.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
The establishment of inspection systems to ensure compliance with the
conditions laid down in authorizations and regulations.
-
The establishment of monitoring programmes to evaluate the effectiveness of
the actions and measures implemented under this Programme.
-
The establishment and improvement of local air pollution monitoring
programmes as a priority in cities and urban agglomerations exceeding one
million inhabitants.
-
The establishment and improvement of local and national monitoring
programmes to control and assess effluent discharges and the quality of the
marine environment.
-
The establishment and improvement of river monitoring programmes.
-
The establishment of permanent registers of river quality and quantity
accessible to all Parties on selected rivers (about fifty).
-
The establishment of a data bank on socio-economic indicators related to sea
and river quality and pollutant fluxes associated with a Geographic Information
System (GIS).
-
Improve the inventory of major point atmospheric sources following
EMEP/CORINAIR guidelines.
- 44 -
10.9 Capacity Building
The activities proposed aim to improve, inter alia: the scientific base, environmental
policy formulation, professional human resources, institutional capacity and capability, both
public and private, the implementation of environmentally sound technologies, the
implementation of policies for cleaner production and technical cooperation, including
cooperation in the fields of technology transfer and know-how process. All these measures
come under the heading of Capacity-building. As part of the above, the activities will be
grouped into two categories:
-
To support, promote and facilitate programmes of assistance in the area of scientific,
technical and human resources;
-
To support, promote and facilitate, as appropriate, the capacity to apply, develop and
manage the access of cleaner production technologies as well as the best available
techniques (BAT) and best environmental practice (BEP);
10.9.1
To support, promote and facilitate programmes of assistance in
the area of scientific, technical and human resources
The primary objective is for each country, with the support of international
organizations, as appropriate, to identify the state of its scientific knowledge and its research
needs and priorities, in order to achieve, as soon as possible, substantial improvements in:
I)
Environmental management institutions
ii)
The scientific base and strengthening of scientific and research capacities and
capabilities in areas relevant to environment and, in particular, to priorities
established in the SAP.
iii)
Environmental policy formulation, building upon the best scientific knowledge
and assessments.
iv)
The interaction between scientific groups and governmental institutions, using
the precautionary approach, where appropriate, to decision-making.
v)
Monitoring, inspection and information systems.
In accordance with Articles 9 and 10 the LBS Protocol, the Parties shall cooperate in
scientific and technological fields related to pollution from land-based sources and activities.
To this end, the Parties shall formulate and implement, at regional level, training
programmes, programmes of assistance and education in the area of scientific, technical
and human resources.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To support programmes on institutional capacity building in the field of
environmental matters.
-
To improve access to and availability of technological and scientific
information at all levels.
- 45 -
-
To develop training programmes on Environmental Impact Assessment.
-
To develop training programmes on environmental auditing and management.
-
To develop training programmes on environmental education.
-
To organize sufficient training and educational programmes for local
administration to operate and maintain sewage treatment facilities adequately.
-
To facilitate the identification of opportunities for projects contributing to
sustainable development in the private sector.
-
To develop training programmes on the integrated management of coastal
areas.
-
To develop training programmes on the management of water demand.
-
To develop training programmes on eco-tourism (to promote initiatives that are
compatible with the environment and the social and cultural background).
-
To support training programmes, using the integrated approach, on rural
development.
-
To develop training programmes on effective waste reduction policies and on
the environmentally sound management of urban solid waste.
-
To promote training programmes on the environmentally sound treatment of
municipal sewage discharged to rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other
solutions appropriate to specific sites.
-
To develop training programmes on river monitoring.
-
To develop training programmes on air pollution monitoring.
-
To develop training programmes on effluent discharges, emission monitoring
and inspection.
-
To promotion and develop training programmes on ecological agriculture.
-
To develop training programmes on monitoring and performance indicators.
10.9.2
To support, promote and facilitate, as appropriate, the capacity to
apply, develop and manage the access of cleaner production
technologies as well as the Best Available Techniques (BAP) and
the Best Environmental Practice (BEP)
The Parties should promote, and encourage the private sector to promote, effective
modalities for the access to cleaner production technologies and for the application of the
best available techniques and best environmental practice with view to preventing, reducing
or phasing out inputs of pollutants from selected land-based sources and activities. To this
end, the Parties should, at national level, improve their up-to-date information, experience and
technical expertise.
- 46 -
Furthermore, there is a need for favourable access to and transfer of environmentally
sound technologies through supportive measures that promote technology cooperation and
that should enable transfer of necessary technological know-how as well as building up of
economic, technical and managerial capabilities for the efficient use and further development
of transferred technology. Successful long-term partnership in technology cooperation
necessarily requires continuing systematic training and capacity building at all levels over an
extended period of time.
Proposed activities at the National level
-
To support training programmes for the effective access to clean production
technologies.
-
To stimulate the research, development and transfer of clean production
technologies, often through partnerships between the scientific and
technological community, industry and Governmental institutions.
-
To promote the cooperative interaction with private-sector groups and non-
governmental organizations to introduce cost-effective and environmentally
sound practices.
-
To strengthen existing national institutions to assess, develop, manage and
apply new environmentally sound technologies.
-
To facilitate access to sources (public or private, national or multilateral) of
technical advice and assistance with respect to particular source-categories
and sectors.
-
To promote cleaner production techniques and practices for production
processes, for products and for services through training of industry
personnel.
-
To support the codes of good environmental practice which cover all aspects
of the activity in the product's life.
-
To promote a voluntary scheme/plan for the award of ecolable to products with
reduced environmental impacts.
-
To prepare programmes given priority to energy efficiency and renewable
sources of energy.
10.10 Public participation
Public information and public participation are an essential dimension in the policy of
sustainable development and environmental protection.
Proposed targets
-
to provide to the general public access to the information available on the state
of the environment of the Mediterranean and its evolution, and the measures
taken to improve it;
- 47 -
-
to enhance the environmental awareness of the pollution, and create a
common approach to the environmental problems of the Mediterranean;
-
to facilitate public access to activities for the protection and management of
the environment and to scientific knowledge;
-
to mobilize and ensure the participation and involvement of major actors
concerned (local and provincial communities, economic and social groups,
consumers, etc.).
Proposed activities at the National level
-
to increase decentralization and public participation in environmental
management by:
I)
gradually decentralizing the operational functions of environmental
management to municipal and local levels;
ii)
disclosing information on environment;
iii)
involving countries, the private sector, local NGOs and the media in
decision making regarding specific environmental policies and issues
through mechanisms such as public consultations and environmental
audits; and
iv)
identifying the potential roles of Non-Government Organizations in the
implementation of the NAP and facilitating the implementation of their
activities.
10.11 Reporting
In accordance with article 13 of the LBS Protocol "The Parties shall submit reports
every two years, to the meeting of the Contracting Parties, through the Organization, of
measures taken, results achieved and if the case arises, of difficulties encountered in the
application of the Protocol"
Proposed activities at the National level
-
Every two years, prepare and submit, to the meeting of the Contracting Parties
report on application of the LBS Protocol. Such reports shall include:
a)
National regulations, action plans, programmes and measures
implemented in application of the Protocol;
b)
Statistical data on the authorization granted in accordance with Article
6 of the Protocol;
c)
Data resulting from compliance monitoring;
d)
Quantities of pollutants discharged from their territories;
- 48 -
e)
Development of public tracking and reporting systems of pollutants,
known generically as Pollutant Release and Transfer Register
(PRTRs).
11. Investment Portfolio and Mobilization of Financial Resources
11.1 Mediterranean Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas
An overall picture from the Country Reports
The catalogue of Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas shown below summarizes the
information contained in the individual Country Reports. The Country Reports were prepared
on the basis of common questionnaires containing a set of criteria applied to all the countries
included in the Project. The methodology for the identification of the Hot Spots and some
elaboration of the country-level data on the land-based pollution sources associated with the
identified Hot Spots are provided in the Regional Hot Spots Report.
Based on the data extracted from the Country Reports, the following annotated
catalogue is constructed showing the identified Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas together with
the proposed investments and estimated costs. The countries are listed in alphabetical order.
ALBANIA
Proposed investments include: WWTP and
133.5 Mill.USD
- Durres
reconstruction of sewerage systems, sanitary
- Vlora
landfill of mercury and toxic solid wastes, study of
- Durres chemical factory
pollution source in (Drini) river basin and
- Vlora PVC factory
management plans and capacity building for
coastal zone management and monitoring
programmes for the sensitive areas
ALGERIA
Proposed investments include: WWTP
115 Mill.USD
- Oran Ville
construction, reconstruction and extensions
- Rouiba
- Ghazaouet
- Alger
- Mostraganem
- Bejaia
- Annaba
- Skikda
- 49 -
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA2
Proposed investment includes: design of NAP,
capacity building, WWTP construction,
- Mostar
monitoring of water quality, construction of
250.8 Mill.USD
- Mostar alumina factory
sanitary dumping sites, management plans and
monitoring programmes for coastal zone and
- Neum-Klek golf
sensitive areas and management and protection
- Bosansko/Grahovo (Cetina
of critical habitats and ecosystems and
river)
endangered species
- Channel Mali Ston
- Canyon Neretva river
- Delta Neretva river
CROATIA3
Proposed investments include:
170.0 Mill. USD
WWTP construction, reconstruction and
- Kastella Bay
extensions, sanitary landfill, and coastal zone
- Split
management plans and monitoring programmes
for the sensitive areas
- Shibenik
- Zadar
- Pula
- Rijeka Oil Refinery
- Kastella Bay (Kaltenberg)
- Zadar (tannery)
- Rijeka
- Dubrovnik
- Zadar (Adria)
CYPRUS
Proposed investments include:
6.6 Mill.USD
- Limassol (Old Port area)
WWTP, extension of sea outfall, installation of
- Limassol
cement factory filters, separation of contaminated
- Vassiliko (Cement factory)
materials and incineration facility
- Larnaca (Oil Refinery)
2
The only pollution hot spot relevant to the Mediterranean coastal zone is Neum-Klek gulf.
3
Croatia has suggested to re-group the pollution hot spots as follows: Zadar, Zadar (Adria) and
Zadar (tannery) represent one hot spot under the name Zadar and its industrial zone, Rijeka, Rijeka (oil Refinery)
represent another hot spot under the name Rijeka and Kvarner Bay and finally Kastella Bay and Kastella Bay
(Kaltenberg) represent Kastella Bay and its industrial zone.
- 50 -
EGYPT
- El-Manzala
- Abu-Qir Bay
Proposed investments include:
- Rashied
WWTP construction and rehabilitation (El-Mazala)
NA
- El-Mex Bay
- Alexandria
- Damietta
Proposed investments include:
FRANCE
Secondary WWTP
200.0 Mill.USD
Hot Spots
- Marseille
- Toulon
- Cannes
- Freijus
GREECE
Hot Spots
Proposed investments include:
- Thermaikos Gulf
Expansion of industrial effluent and WWTP,
207.4 Mill.USD
- Inner Saronic Gulf
industrial feasibility studies, treatment plant and
- Patraikos Gulf
sea outfall (Patraikos gulf), secondary treatment
- Pagasitikos Gulf
plant (Inner Saronic gulf)
- Herakleon Gulf
- Elefsis Bay
- NW Saronic Gulf
- Larymna Bay
- Nea Karvali Bay
ITALY
Proposed investments include:
1,500 Mill.USD
Hot Spots
> Harbour/Industrial Sector
- Porto Marghera
- Revised plan for product separation harbour
- Genova
facility (chemical, non-chemical, oil) - Protected
- Augusta
connection system for vessel operation - Slop
- Brindisi
collection facility - Change of coastal anti-fouling
- Gela
system - Industrial organic coastal landfill - Ship
- La Spezia
emissions treatment plants
- Milazzo
> Municipal Sector
- Gulf of Napoli
- Revision and rationalization of WWTP on coastal
- Ravenna
cities and on cities discharging into continental
- Taranto
waters
- Livorno-Rosignano
- Bari-Barletta
- Manfredonia
- Ancona-Falc.
ISRAEL
Proposed investments include:
129.0 Mill.USD
- Haifa Bay
WWTP construction and upgrading. For the
- Akko
complete solution of the Gush Dan hot spot,
- Nahariya
additional US$ 90.0 m. have to be considered.
- Gush Dan
- Ashdod
- Haifa Bay Industries
- 51 -
LEBANON
Proposed investments include:
405.1Mill.USD
- Greater Beirut
WWTP construction, industrial wastes master
- Jounieh
plan and capacity building actions
- Saida-Ghaziye
- Tripoli
- Batroun Selaata
LIBYA
Proposed investments include:
16.6 Mill. USD
- Zanzur
Industrial effluent TP maintenance, WWTP
- Tripoli
maintenance and extension (Bengazi & Tripoli)
- Bengazi
- Zawia
- Tobruk
MALTA
Proposed investments include:
48.0 Mill.USD
- Weid Ghammieq
WWTP construction and extension (Weid
- Cumnija
Ghummieq)
- Ras il-Hobz
MONACO
(See General Observations below)
MOROCCO
- Tanger
Proposed investments include:
54.0 Mill.USD
- Tetouan
Domestic and industrial WWTP construction and
- Nador
extension (Nador)
- Al Hoceima
SLOVENIA
Proposed investments include: WWTP extension
113.5 Mill.USD
- Izola
and construction of sewerage systems (extension
- Demalaris
in Delamaris and Koper) and management plan for
- Piran (submarine outfall)
Dragonja, Drnica and Rizana river basins
- Rizana river
SPAIN
Proposed Investments include:
1,000 Mill.USD
- Barcelona
WWTP construction and upgrading, Urban solid
- Tarragona
waste management, Hazardous waste
- Valencia
management, Land reclamation
- Cartagena
- Algeciras Bay
SYRIA
Proposed investments include:
197.3 Mill.USD
- Tartous
WWTP construction, industrial wastes master
- Lattakia
plan and capacity building actions
- Banias
- Jableh
TUNISIA
Proposed investments include:
298.0 Mill.USD
- Gaber
WWTP construction and extension, industrial
- Lake of Tunis
WWTP construction, recycling or fluorine recovery
- Lake Bizarte
facility & phosphogypsum disposal site (Gabes
- Sfax South
fertilizer ind.), feasibility study for treatment of
- Ghar El-Melh
exhaust gas (Sfux-South fertilizer ind.),
construction of recirculation canal (Ghar El-Melh
industries)
- 52 -
TURKEY
Proposed investments include:
774.5 Mill.USD
- Icel Bay
WWTP construction and sewerage construction
(Erdemli, Silifke, Tarsus)
and extensions
- Adana city
(Ceyhan)
- Antalya city
(Alanya, Side/Manavgat)
- Antakya
(Iskenderun, Dortyol,
Kirikhan)
- Bodrum Peninsula
(Marmaris, Datca)
General observations
The following observations emerge from a review of the above catalogue and draw
attention to key characteristics of the proposed investments:
-
On the basis of the criteria proposed by the questionnaires prepared for the
identification of hot spots and sensitive areas, Monaco was not included in
such lists.
-
Some countries did not send information about activities and costs.
-
The proposed Hot Spots are very heterogenous, sometimes a town and even a
bay with all their pollution sources industrial and domestic is proposed, other a
single WWTP for a town or for a industry and even a particular problem of a
particular industry is proposed.
-
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) represent the predominant remedial
action proposed reflecting the perception of municipal and industrial waste
water as the main land-based source of coastal pollution risk. Of the total
amount of 5,693.1 Million, about 2,000 is proposed for WWTP construction,
reconstruction and extensions.
-
The operation and maintenance costs of WWTP is not presented.
-
Only 25 Million is proposed explicitly for feasibility studies, management plans
and capacity-building actions.
-
Urban solid waste management and Hazardous waste management are
almost totally forgotten, only 12,5 Million are proposed for these activities.
-
The activities to abate the levels of atmospheric, urban and industrial pollution
are rare.
-
Despite widespread awareness of the importance of prevention measures to
reduce pollution, it is surprising that actions to improve the application of Best
Available techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practices (BEP) are not
proposed.
- 53 -
11.1.1 Estimated costs from country reports
a) Hot spots:
The available cost information for Hot Spots is summarized in Table 1 below, which shows
the estimated cost by country.
Table 1
Estimated investment costs for Hot Spots (million USD)
proposed by the countries
Country
Number of Hot Spots
Estimated costs
Albania
4
95.5
Algeria
8
115
Bosnia and Herzegovina
6
250.8
Croatia
8
164
Cyprus
5
6.6
Egypt
6
162.8
France
4
200
Greece
8
195.4
Italy
13
1,500
Israel
5
129
Lebanon
5
378.6
Libya
5
16.6
Malta
3
48
Morocco
4
54
Slovenia
4
113.5
Spain
5
1,000
Syria
4
191.3
Tunisia
9
298
Turkey
5
774.5
TOTAL
111
5,693.1 million USD
b)
Sensitive areas
The list of Sensitive Areas shown below summarizes the information contained in the
individual Country Reports. Fourteen countries identified 54 Sensitive Areas and only 6
proposed activities, with a total cost of 93.6 million USD.
- 54 -
TABLE 2
Estimated investment costs for Sensitive Areas (million USD)
proposed by the countries
Country
Number of Sensitive
Estimated costs
Areas
Albania
3
35
Algeria
6
Bosnia and
4
5,1
Herzegovina
Croatia
5
6
Cyprus
1
Egypt
1
France
3
Greece
2
12
Italy
7
Lebanon
2
26.5
Malta
2
Slovenia
2
3
Spain
3
Syria
5
6
Tunisia
1
Turkey
6
TOTAL
54
93.6 million USD
11.2 Investment Portfolio Scenarios
11.2.1 "Do nothing"
Taking no action is evidently the highest-cost option from the environmental and social
point of view, which should be excluded at the outset. Marine pollution from municipal and
industrial wastewater, agricultural run-off, discharges from ships and the uncontrolled
disposal of solid wastes is a major threat to the Mediterranean. Apart from the environmental
costs, the strong economic-environmental linkages underlying the regional economy, due to
the importance of environment-related sectors such as tourism, fisheries and agriculture, also
imply direct economic losses in these sectors.
The report of the World Bank on Middle East and North Africa Environmental Strategy
(1995) estimates the costs of poor environmental quality and natural resource management
and includes: impairment of public health, agricultural and fishery productivity losses,
reduction in tourism revenues, degradation of historical sites and cultural property,
degradation of ecosystems, loss of biodiversity and reduction in amenity values.
- 55 -
The total cost of environmental degradation and pollution are unknown. However, the
estimate for the MNA region made by the World Bank and shown in the table below is
between 11.5 and 14 billion USD per year or almost 3 percent of regional GDP. Although this
should be viewed as a rough estimate and is likely to constitute a lower limit, given the
exclusion of the other costs of environmental degradation and poor natural resource
management, the figures in Table 2 are similar to the cost of environmental damage in
Eastern European countries, such as Poland, and 2-3 times as much as comparable costs in
OECD countries.
TABLE 3
Real Cost of Environmental Neglect (billion USD) (Source: World Bank)
IMPACTS
Cost
Productivity cost of soil erosion, salination and deforestation
1-1.5
Health impairment from lack of safe water and sanitation,
7
excessive air particulate and SO2 pollution
(4.5 safe water)
(2.5 PM & SO2)
Disease treatment
1-1.5
Health impairment from lead pollution
1.5-2
Loss of tourism
1-2
TOTAL
11.5-14
11.2.2 Try to do everything
At the other end of the scale, despite the evident urgency for action focused on the Hot
Spots, the high investment cost, the variability of the Hot Spots in terms of source,
consequence and transboundary effects, and the institutional and legal pre-requisites for the
most effective use of national and international financial resources, require the definition of
priorities. Trying to tackle all the Hot Spots, even over a period of time, is as likely to lead to
inaction due to limited justification for equal attention to all the Hot Spots and the consequent
failure to attract investment funds over and above national budget allocations. There is also
the question of the need for additional data for a clearer identification of Hot Spots and the
associated remedial actions. Screening is essential in order to build up a coherent framework
for an outline Investment Portfolio.
The report of the World Bank on the MNA region Environmental Strategy (1995)
presents a tentative order of magnitude of investment costs to promote more environmentally
sustainable development for the MNA region (Table 4). A first estimate puts the total
investment cost in the order of 58-78 billion USD over the next ten years, or about 1.3-1.8
percent of regional GDP if the investments are spread over a period of 10 years. This
additional investment requirement is comparable to the expenditure on environmental
protection of most OECD countries, which has been in the order of 1-2 percent of GDP for the
last two decades.
- 56 -
TABLE 4
Tentative Ten Year Investment Requirements
(billion USD) (Source: World Bank)
Action
Total
Expected
Investment
benefits
Env. institutional capacity building
0.1-0.3
More env. sustainable policy
(including staffing, training, public
framework
inform. /particip. and lab. equipm.
Industrial sector clean up: air pollution:
4-6
DALYs4 reduced by 2 million from
Fuel subst. of high (3%) by low (1%)
4-5
air PM and SO2 pollution
sulphur fuel oils, or by natural gas
Industrial sector clean up: water
8-14
Avoidance of additional
pollution
unnecessary costs of supply of
safe municipal and agriculture
water
Industrial sector clean up: hazardous
3-4
Diminished health risks, including
waste
that of cancer
Full urban and rural coverage of safe
19-21
DALYs reduced by 3 million
water and sanitation, including 55%
urban coverage of sewage treatment
Natural resource management
10-155
Reduced productivity losses,
activities on 10 % of land potentially
watershed protection and
threatened by erosion
biodiversity conser.
Full coverage of safe municipal solid
4-6
Reduced health risks and cleaner
waste management
urban environment
Change to unleaded gas. for 50 % of
6-7
Health impacts reduced by 65 %
consumption
TOTAL
58-78
The report to the EC DGXI on "Economic evaluation of air quality targets for sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, fine and suspended particulate matter and lead" (1997) estimates the costs
for the reduction of emissions of air pollutants in EU cities at risk6 in million ECU (Table 5):
4
Disability adjusted life years(DALYs) are a measure of the loss of healthy life due to both
premature mortality and disability.
5
This estimate is extremely tentative given the lack of data.
6
The population of the cities at risk is: SO2, 13 cities (2 Med.) with 17.9 million (5.6 Med.); NO2,
22 cities (14 Med.) with 23.5 million (15.5 Med.); PM, 25 cities (4 Med.) with 16 million (1.58
Med.) and Pb, 10,000 to 30,000 people living near lead producing plants.
- 57 -
TABLE 5
Required emission reductions in cities at risk and associated costs (Source: E.U.)
Pollutant
Emission
Total annual cost Type of measures and specific
reduction
(million ECU)
cost. Central estimate of emission
(thousand
reduction
tonnes) (percent.)
SO2
50/(10%)
21/(4- 48)
Reduction of process emissions.
Use of low sulphur fuels
NOx
70/(8 %)
79/(5-285)
Traffic: road pricing and
introduction of LPG/CNG buses (40
MECU).
Other sources: various measures
(e.g.low-NOx combustion
techniques (39 MECU)
PM
15/(50%)
87-225/(50-300)
Traffic:road pricing and introduction
of LPG/CNG buses (18 MECU).
Application of fabric filters instead of
Electrostatic Precipitators. But
many other measure are applicable.
(69-207 MECU)
Lead
Not quantif.
(12-40)
Various measures not separately
identified
Some of the measures that have been evaluated control different pollutants (e.g. NOx
and PM) simultaneously. The cost-data presented in Table 2 did not account for this aspect.
11.3 Proposed Activities and Associated Costs
11.3.1 Hot spots
Taking into account the proposals made by the countries concerning the investments
costs for the hot spots (table 1) as well as the activities proposed in the SAP, the Secretariat
has prepared the list of activities and costs related to hot spots which is presented in table 6.
This list includes activities and costs for:
a)
investments proposed by the countries according to Table 1;
b)
activities and investments proposed by the Secretariat:
I)
Pre-investment studies for each Hot Spot;
ii)
Reduction of 350,000 ton/y of BOD, nutrients and suspended solids of
industrial origin;
iii)
Facilities for management of 1 million tonnes of Hazardous Wastes;
The list did not include operation and maintenance costs, amortization and interest.
- 58 -
11.3.2 Sensitive areas
Taking into account the proposals made by the countries concerning the investment
costs for the sensitive areas (table 20) as well as the activities proposed in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of activities and associated costs for the sensitive areas
which is presented in table 7.
This list include activities and costs for:
a)
the investments proposed by the countries according to table 2;
b)
the activities and the investments proposed by the Secretariat:
I)
The formulation of action plans for the sensitive areas;
ii)
Remedial actions and other activities not yet determined for other sensitive
areas.
11.3.3 Cities
Taking into account the proposed activities and priorities defined in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of proposed activities and associated costs for the protection
of the environment in Cities exceeding 100.000 inhabitants which is presented in Table 8.
This list include activities and costs for:
I)
Urban solid waste reduction, management and disposal for 34 cities exceeding
100,000 inhabitants with a total of 18 millions people and producing 5,4 millions
tonnes/year of urban solid waste.
ii)
Inspection and maintenance of vehicles and renovation of old vehicles.
iii)
Measures for air pollution reduction. These measures include regulatory
instruments, such as vehicle-targeted measures, automotive and fuel
standards and non regulatory instruments such as subsidies (to promote the
use of less polluting transport modes or cleaner vehicles), taxes, regulations
and traffic management.
11.3.4 Regional Sustainable Environmental Management Programmes
The priorities suggested above are only part of the required actions; Pollution control
strategies are most effective when they are planned and implemented within an integrated
environmental management programme which includes action focused on the need to ensure
sustainable resource use and sound management. The essential elements for sustainable
environmental action should include activities targeted on:
a)
Capacity Building
b)
National Plans and Programmes
c)
Cleaner Production
d)
Monitoring and Enforcement
e)
Information and Public Participation
- 59 -
The linkages between wastewater projects and integrated environmental management
should be an important element in the planning of strategic action for the Mediterranean
environment. The following notes seek to strengthen this element and explain the inclusion of
such programmes in the investment portfolio.
The quality of the environment in any part of the world reflects past and current
practices in the "utilisation" of the environment by individuals, industrial and business
organisations and public agencies in response to growing social and economic pressures for
development. However, environmental degradation is not confined to low-income
Mediterranean developing economies, which need to stimulate employment generation in
order to cope with rapid urbanization and growth of uncontrolled settlements. Higher-income
Mediterranean economies face equally serious degradation problems arising from income-
induced increases in the use of materials, water, chemicals and technology, placing equally
strong pressures on the environment. Environmental protection requires integrated policies
and institutions capable of action to regulate production, distribution, consumption and
disposal practices within a broader-based coastal zone strategy.
a)
Capacity-building
The capacity to plan and initiate environmental action across a wide range of activities
is a gradual process based on a prior commitment to economic and social development
policies built on cross-sectoral linkages and an effective networking effort across agencies
and policies. Capacity building is needed to increase awareness of the economic and social
value of the environmental resources likely to ensure that industrial and municipal
organizations, consumers and policy-makers do not either disregard or give low priority to
environmental risks.
Taking into account the proposed activities and priorities defined in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of proposed activities and associated cost for Capacity-
building which is presented in Table 9. This list includes activities and costs for supporting
training programmes on 13 different subjects over 10 years at a cost of 1 million USD each.
From the 13 million USD, 25 % may be considered organizational costs and are considered
as Regional costs.
b)
National plans, programmes and regulations
Taking into account the proposed activities and priorities defined in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of proposed activities and associated cost for preparation of
National Plans, Programmes and Regulations which is presented in Table 10. This list
includes activities and costs for supporting the preparation by regional organizations of
guidelines for sewage and industrial waste water treatment and disposal and the reuse of
waste water and sludge, and also the preparation of Mediterranean Strategy for the
Management of Hazardous Wastes and activities and costs at the national level for the
preparation of national regulations, plans and programmes at a total cost of 3 million USD
over the next two years. The estimated cost of these activities is 3 million USD over two
years.
c)
BAT & BEP and Cleaner Production
Taking into account the proposed activities and priorities defined in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of proposed activities and associated cost for preparation of
guidelines for BAT and BEP and for activities for reduction of discharges and emissions by
- 60 -
use of cleaner technologies which is presented in Table 11. This list includes activities and
costs for supporting the preparation by regional organizations of guidelines for BAT and BEP
for different pollutants. The estimated cost of these activities is 700.000 USD over two years.
The estimated cost of national activities aimed at the reduction of discharges and emissions
of priority pollutants is 460 million USD over 10 years.
d)
Monitoring and Enforcement
Taking into account the proposed activities and priorities defined in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of proposed activities and associated cost for Monitoring and
Enforcement which is presented in Table 12. This list includes activities and costs for
supporting the establishment of inspection systems and monitoring programmes at the
national level. The estimated cost for these activities is 32 million USD. A cost of 140,000
USD is estimated for supporting the establishment of inventories and data bank.
e)
Information and Public Participation
Taking into account the proposed activities and priorities defined in the SAP, the
Secretariat has prepared the list of proposed activities and associated cost for Information
and Public Participation which is presented in Table 13. This list includes activities and costs
to enhance public participation and public information. The estimated cost of these activities
is 2.98 million USD, including 1.3 million for the preparation of printed materials and TV spots.
- 61 -
TABLE 6
List of proposed activities and associated cost for HOT SPOTS,
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
COST
TOTAL
DATE
UNIT USD
COSTS
million USD
List of 111 Hot Spots with main activities
10,000
1.19
1997/1999
and first impact evaluation
Preinvestment studies for each 124 Hot
100,000
11.9
1998 / 2000
Spots.
Prepare action plans for remedial actions
2,000
0.248
1998 / 2000
in order to control pollution at 124 H.S.
Proposed investments by Countries
5,693.1
2001 / 2008
Industrial WWTP (S.S., org. matter and
40,000,000
400
2001 / 2008
nutrients; 350.000 t/y BOD,
equiv.10,000,000 inhab.
Dispose 1 M tons of Hazardous Wastes
2001 / 2008
in a safe and environmentally manner:
- 20 Temporary safe storage for
500,000
10
Hazardous Wastes
- 5 physico/chemical treatment plants
7,000,000
35
5 integrated treatment plants
50,000,000
250
- 20 Permanent safe storage for
2,500,000
50
Hazardous Wastes
TOTAL
6,453
2001 / 2008
TABLE 7
List of proposed activities and associated cost for SENSITIVE AREAS
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
ASSOCIATED
DATE
COSTS
million USD
List of 54 sensitive areas and env. audits
0.54
Prepare action plan for remedial actions for sensitive
1.08
1998/2000
areas
Remedial actions for sensitive areas proposed by
93.6
1998/2008
countries
Development of the methodology for selection of
0.03
1998
sensitive areas and for determination of the cost of
protection
Remedial actions for sensitive areas
100
1998/2008
TOTAL
195.25
- 62 -
TABLE 8
List of proposed activities and associated cost for Cities
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIONS
ASSOCIATED COST
DATE
million USD
Urban solid Waste reduction, management and
1,500
1998/2008
disposal in 34 cities (18 M inb)
Inspection, maintenance and renovation of the oldest
500
1998/2008
vehicles.(1 M vehicles)
Measures for Air pollution reduction
800
1998/2008
TOTAL
2,800
1998/2008
- 63 -
TABLE 9
List of proposed activities and cost for CAPACITY-BUILDING
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
ASS.COST
ASS. COST
DATE
REGIONAL
NATIONAL
Support programmes on institutional capacity
250.000
750,000
1998/2008
building.
Develop. training programmes on EIA.
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
Develop. training programmes on environmental
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
auditing and management.
Develop. training programmes on environmental
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
education.
Develop. training programmes on monitoring
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
and inspection.
Develop. training programmes on cleaner
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
production techniques and practices.
Provision of training to local administration for
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
operation and maintenance of WWTP.
Facilitation of access to sources of technical
250,000
75O,000
1998/2008
advice and assistance.
Develop. training programmes on river
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
monitoring.
Develop. training programmes on air monitoring.
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
Training programmes on cleaner production for
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
industrial managers.
Training programmes on cleaner production for
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
public sector responsibles.
Training and educ. programme on ICZM
250,000
750,000
1998/2008
TOTAL
3,250,000
9,750,000
1998/2008
- 64 -
TABLE 10
List of proposed activities and costs for the preparation of
NATIONALPROGRAMMES
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
ASS.COST
ASS.COST
DATE
REGIONAL
NATIONAL
Preparation of Guidelines for sewage
100,000
1998/1999
treatment and disposal.
Prep. of Guidelines for ind. waste water treat.
100,000
1998/1999
and disposal.
Prep. of Guidelines for reuse of waste water
100,000
1998/1999
and sludge
Prep. of Mediterranean Strategy for
100,000
1998/1999
Management of Haz.Waste
Prep. of Nat. Reg. on point source disch. of
200,000
1998/1999
dom. and ind. w.w. into the sea and rivers.
Prep. of Nat. Reg. on point sources
200,000
1998/1999
emissions into the air.
Prep. of Nat. Prog. for Sewage
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Nat. Programmes for Urban Solid
200,000
1998/1999
Waste
Prep. of Nat.Programmes for Heavy Metals
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Nat.Programmes for Organohalogen
200,000
1998/1999
compounds
Prep. of Nat.Programmes for SS, Organic
200,000
1998/1999
matter and nutrients
Prep. of Nat. Plans for H. W.
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Pilot Progr. for PCBs.
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Pilot Progr. for Obsolete Chemicals
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Pilot Progr. for Luboils
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Pilot Progr. for used Batteries
200,000
1998/1999
Prep. of Pilot Project for manag. of H.W.
200,000
1998/1999
from military establishments.
TOTAL
400,000
2,600,000
1998/1999
- 65 -
TABLE 11
List of proposed activities and costs for BAT & BEP and CLEANER PRODUCTION
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
ASS. COST
ASS. COSTS
DATE
REGIONAL
NATIONAL
million USD
million USD
Preparation of guidelines for BAT and BEP for
0.1
1998/2000
main point sources of dioxins and furans and
experts meeting.
Preparation of guidelines for BAT and BEP for
0.1
1998/2000
main point sources of PAH and experts meeting.
Preparation of guidelines for BAT and BEP for
0.1
1998/2000
main point sources of organometallic compounds
and experts meeting.
Preparation of guidelines for BAT and BEP for
0.1
1998/2000
power plants and experts meeting.
Preparation of guidelines for BAT and BEP for
0.1
1998/2000
main point sources of organohalogens compounds
and experts meeting.
Publication of the 10 guidelines.
0.1
1998/2000
Preparation of guidelines for BAT and BEP for
0.1
1998/2000
main point sources of SS, organic matter and
nutrients and experts meeting.
Reduction of discharges and emissions of T.P.B.
150
2001/2008
Reduction of the generation of Hazardous Waste.
150
2001/2008
Reduction of emission of air pollutants by power
150
2001/2008
plants.
Support the development of alterative energies.
10
2001/2008
TOTAL
0.7
460
- 66 -
TABLE 12
List of proposed activities and cost for MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
ASS. COSTS
DATE
million USD
To support the establishment of a Inspection System to ensure
10
1998/2000
compliance with national regulations.
To support the establishment of a Monitoring Programme to evaluate the
10
1998/2000
actions.
To support the establishment of a monitoring programme for marine
5
environment quality
To support the establishment of air monitoring programme in 5 cities
5
1998/2008
exceeding 1 M inhabitants.
To support the establishment of local monitoring programmes to control
2
1998/2008
and asses effluent discharges.
To support the establishment of river monit. progr.for water flow, sediment
5
1998/2008
load and pollution loads (50 rivers).
To support the establ. of Permanent Register of river data (50 rivers).
0.05
1998/2000
To support the establ. of National Data bank on socio-economic indicators
0.05
1998/2000
of sea and river quality.
Elaboration of the Inventory of major air point sources.
0.02
1998/2000
Elaboration of the Inventory of point source discharges and emissions in
0.02
1998/2000
the hot spots and areas of concern.
TOTAL
37.14
1998/2000
TABLE 13
List of proposed activities and cost for INFORMATION and PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
prepared by the Secretariat
PROPOSED ACTIVITIES
ASSOC.
ASSOC.
DATE
COSTS
COSTS
REGIONAL
NATIONAL
Enhance env. awareness of the population
20,000
200,000
1998/2005
Prepare printed material and TV spots
300,000
1,000,000
1998/2005
Identification of potential roles for NGO in the
50,000
200,000
1998/2005
implementation of the SAP Programme.
Collect information on the levels and trends of loads
20,000
200,000
1998/2005
of pollution reaching the Med. Sea
Develop PRTRs in cooperation with OCDE
20,000
200,000
1998/2005
Collect information on the measures implemented
20,000
200,000
1998/2005
Development of institutions and processes
20,000
200,000
1998/2005
facilitating public participation in env. management.
Preparation of the reports on application of LBS
20,000
200,000
1998/2005
Protocol and SAP
Prepare and adopt if necessary national legislation
10,000
100,000
1998/2005
on public information
TOTAL
480,000
2,500,000
1998/2005
- 67 -
TABLE 14
ESTIMATED COSTS OF THE ACTIVITIES FROM 1998 TO 2008
prepared by the Secretariat
ESTIMATE COST
ESTIMATE COST
TOTAL
(million USD)
(million USD)
1998 / 2000
2001 / 2008
Hot Spots
1,078
5,375
6,453
Sensitive Areas
1.62
193.63
195.25
Protocol Area Cities
245
2,555
2,800
Capacity Building
2.6
10.4
13
National
3.2
8
11.2
Programmes
Clean Production
0.7
460
460.7
Monitoring &
20.14
17
37.14
Enforcement
Information & Public
1.18
1.8
2.98
Participation
TOTAL
1,352.4
8,620.8
9,973.2
11.4 Future Needs
It is evident that accurate and more comprehensive cost data will be needed as part of
the follow-up activities in the context of further analysis of priority actions including the
question of cost-effectiveness and more detailed project identification, both of which are
essential elements for strengthening the scope of economic analysis in the formulation and
implementation of the environmental action plan for the Mediterranean.
11.4.1 Need for "Resource-consciousness"
The importance of cost information in this context does not only depend on its
accuracy. These initial cost estimates are a "first-shop attempt" to apply cost considerations
to this activity which includes screening of proposed actions and guidelines for
implementation choices. Part of the purpose of developing an Investment Portfolio Strategy is
to introduce "resource consciousness" in the Regional Strategic Environmental Action Plan.
"Resource consciousness", in this context, means closer project identification, concern for
cost-effective options and a capacity to raise questions on how to take decisions on options
and approaches which are technically and socially appropriate to particular country situations.
This point of view is central to environmental investment planning where increased
investments need to be diverted from other commercial sectors on the basis criteria which
include identification of cost-effective projects. Issues that require more detailed appraisal
will be more sharply revealed as a result of the preparation of this Investment Portfolio
Strategy.
- 68 -
11.4.2 Need for An Investment Strategy
Apart from data gaps, cost estimates need to be related to wider economic and
environmental considerations before used for action planning purposes. The main task at this
stage is the interpretation and use of the available cost data to construct elements for the
integration of the proposed remedial environmental action in an action-oriented investment
strategy for future investment decisions. The development of an investment strategy involves
various levels of analysis, each requiring increasingly more and better data according to the
degree of detail needed. So far, cost estimates indicate an approximate set of financial
requirements, totalized to give estimated investment requirements. Raw cost information
needs to be analysed in relation to the impacts of the present pollution risks and the "value" of
the expected benefits of the proposed investments in terms of the future reduction of these
impacts on resources, such as human health, aquatic life, economic and social welfare,
recreational activities, other beneficial uses and the quality of drinking water. This approach is
instrumental in the effective mobilization and use of financial resources for a particular action
plan.
11.5 Use of the Investment Portfolio
An investment portfolio is a framework for guiding investment choices and decisions,
usually within changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. It is a process that
leads to a demonstration of the economic implications of environmental actions, rather than a
final statement for a single purpose. This investment portfolio should be used as a guide to
develop deeper environmental-economic analysis in the light of funding and justification
requirements at the regional and national levels. The elements outlined in this investment
portfolio are intended as guidelines for future work.
Raw cost information is insufficient to support investment decisions. Costs need to be
related to wider economic and environmental considerations before being used for planning
purposes. The interpretation and use of estimated costs required construction of an
investment strategy and options for future investment decisions. This document shows how
cost data should be analysed in relation to pollution impacts and the expected benefits of
proposed investments, to reduce impacts on resources such as human health, aquatic life,
economic and social welfare, recreational activities, other beneficial uses and the quality of
drinking water. This approach should be used to make cost information meaningful for
effective resource mobilization and planning.
Investment planning has many levels of analysis and data requirements. The
framework used in this document outlines possible approaches and suggests guidelines that
are adaptable to specific contexts. Follow-up work will be needed in support of the
implementation of priority actions. It provides the context for further analysis for sharper
project identification and evaluation based on the parameters which have to be taken into
account.
It shows how cost, impact, benefit and funding issues can be brought together to
facilitate the development of locally relevant and nationally specific investment portfolios. It
demonstrates how benefits are derived from the reduction or avoidance of pollution impacts
on resources of social, economic and environmental value. This perception allows further
work looking at the environmental impacts as they relate to valuable resources such as
Human Health, Aquatic Life, Economy and Welfare, Recreation, Other Beneficial Uses and
Quality of Drinking Water rather than mixing and generalising environmental information
rendering difficult the identification of benefits from actions to address pollution risks.
- 69 -
The investment portfolio framework developed in this document should help improve
the approach to environmental investment and the justification for increasing financial
resources for the environment. It is important to remember that environmental resources are
often used (and misused) outside a market context and therefore their value is under-rated.
The total benefits from their conservation through better use practices should be take into
account (and when possible qualitative) in justifying the viability of environmental actions. This
broader definition of benefits to include the conservation of resource for their existence (or
non-use value) is one of the key elements to be used for the development of detailed project
proposals put up for donor or national budget support.
In the follow up work in response to specific evaluation and investment planning needs,
it is useful to focus not only on the availability of fund, or "can we afford to pay the cost of
environmental action plans" but primarily on "whether it is worth paying the cost" relative to the
expected benefits. This will create the need to show the total value of benefits which is
typically many times greater than financial costs.
The cost/benefit approach is particularly appropriate in the context of environmental
actions due to the diverse, long-term and social nature of benefits which are known to exceed
by far the costs. In addition, a cost/benefit approach is more effective in mobilising funding
sources for environmental actions because it focuses on the justification of environmental
investment programmes which is central to the effort to attract funds from donors committed
to sustainable environmental management.
Primarily, the importance of an investment portfolio lies in incorporating investment
planning and economic analysis in environmental action plans. The added value of this
integration is to support resource mobilisation and direction of local, national, regional and
international opinion to needs for environmental action and cooperation. Funding
requirements and investment options are best discussed in the light of scenarios showing to
the decision-makers, NGOs and international institutions the urgency for actions in risk areas
and the respective cost/benefit positions. Integrated environmental planning approaches,
incorporating economic and financial concerns within the planning process, serves, among
other things, to strengthen institutional capacities and to build up a common framework for
communication on goals, objectives, constraints and visions essential for gathering official
and popular support behind environmental proposals.
11.6 Mobilization of financial resources
The mobilization of resources is essential for the development and implementation of
this Programme. However, it is important to clearly state that most of the resources should
be national and that it is the polluters, the consumers, the users and the Governments which
should provide the resources necessary for the application of the Programme, knowing that
the benefits obtained could be greater than the costs involved.
Effective international cooperation is important for a successful and cost-effective
SAP. International cooperation serves a central role in enhancing capacity-building, technology
transfer and cooperation, and financial support. Moreover, effective implementation of the
Programme requires efficient support from appropriate international agencies. Furthermore,
international cooperation is required to ensure regular review of the implementation of the
Programme and its further development and adjustment.
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It will be necessary to look for external financial resources and to develop new
innovative financial schemes taking into account that national financial resources are limited.
To this end, there are two types of mobilization of resources:
-
Mobilization of national financial resources;
-
Mobilization of external financial resources and mechanism as well as other
alternatives.
Financing needs fall into three categories:
-
Funds for technical activities including studies; demonstration and pilot
projects; planning, including operational planning; training, institutional
strengthening; data collection and monitoring; programme design and
implementation; and project identification, preparation, and feasibility studies.
-
Funds for capital investment in facilities to reduce and control pollution and
improve management of sectors.
-
Funds for project implementation, including training and institutional
strengthening and the recurrent cost of monitoring, operation and maintenance.
11.6.1 National financial resources
Proposed activities at National level
-
To gradually change prices for the water uses in line with their economic costs
to encourage more efficient water use, and to mobilize the funds needed for
operation, maintainment and new investment.
-
To establish and apply certain fees for the supply of municipal or industrial
water according to the volumes consumed. These fees should gradually cover
the costs of collection, treatment and distribution.
-
To establish and apply a tax for the treatment of wastewater which gradually
covers the costs of treatment and disposal. This tax should be applied to the
users of domestic or industrial water.
-
To establish a fee for the discharge of wastewater which complies with the
regulations adopted for its discharge into public channels, rivers and the sea.
This fee should take into account the volume of water discharged and its
quality, and its ultimate aim should be to help maintain and monitor the quality
of the receiving water.
-
To establish a annual tax applied to the vehicles for their harmful emissions
into the atmosphere and use of carburants.
In accordance with "polluter pay" principle:
-
a) the users should, where appropriate, pay for the costs of collection and
disposal of urban solid waste.
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-
b) to establish, where appropriate, a industrial waste management fees at rates
that reflect the cost of providing the service and ensure that those who
generate the wastes pay the full cost of disposal in an environmentally safe
way.
-
c) to establish a tax for air emissions from industrial installations. This tax would
be higher in the case of industrial installations located in the "hot spots" and
areas of concern.
-
d) the producers of certain goods (paper, packaging, pneumatic,) should take
responsibility for those goods once used or for the wastes that those goods are
going to generate. These goods should be recovered (recycling, regeneration,
reusing). The principal aim is that these used goods can be re-placed on the
market.
-
To prepare environmental voluntary agreements between authorities, producers
and users of hazardous waste and substances that are toxic, persistent and liable
to bioaccumulate, for the reduction of pollution.
-
Both public and private sector should set up a fund from which advances to
support markets of recycling goods.
-
To introduce economic and financial incentives to encourage the use of less
pollution goods. For example, encourage the use of unleaded petrol.
-
To introduce economic and financial incentives to encourage the use of cleaner
production techniques.
-
To introduce pollution fees and fines to reduce the environmentally harmful
impacts of certain activities. Pollution fees and fines also can be used as a source
of funds for environmental activities.
Efforts to mobilise local and national resources for environmental protection through
user fees or pollution charges are expected to yield results very gradually. National or local
loans is not a major factor in the short term because national or local capital markets and
banks have not been developed to support environmental improvements and services.
National or local private investment is constrained by historical barriers to private ownership, a
limited national banking and financial sector, and inexperience of potential investors with the
types of activities proposed in the SAP.
11.6.2 External financial resources
The external financial resources serve a central role in order to support and
complement the efforts of the Parties for the successful implementation of the SAP. Their use
must be well planned and properly coordinated.
Details are given below about some of the financial resources and instruments for
implementation of the SAP. Three criteria are taken into account: available financing sources,
type of financial institutions and geographical scope. The principal sources of external
financial resources are:
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1. Grant and concessionary assistance from the GEF and the UNDP.
2. Loans from multilateral and regional banks.
3. Financial instruments from the European Union.
4. Multilateral Programmes: The Mediterranean Environmental Assistance
Programme (METAP).
5. Bilateral agreements.
6. Alternative funding sources.
Grant and concessionary assistance from the GEF and the UNDP
The Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
GEF has a special role to play in providing new and additional grant and concessional
funding to meet the agreed incremental costs of measures to achieve agreed global
environmental benefits in the following focal areas: climate change; biological diversity;
international waters; ozone layer depletion. It is a cooperative venture among national
governments, the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP. The GEF also supports international
environmental management and the transfer of environmentally sound technologies.
Funds provided through the GEF offer countries the opportunity to demonstrate how
development projects can integrate environmental concerns. A project usually must not be
economically viable without support from the facility. Most GEF funding will be for investment
projects. Other types of projects include technical assistance, pre-investment and feasibility
studies, scientific research and training.
Moreover, UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank play an important role in the
implementation of GEF-financed activities within their respective sphere of competence and in
facilitating cooperation in GEF-financed activities by multilateral development banks, United
Nations agencies and programs, other international institutions, national institutions, local
communities, etc.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Environment and natural resource management were selected by UNDP`s Governing
Council as one of the six areas of concentration of UNDP`s fifth cycle program (1992-1996).
A number of technical assistance initiatives have already been launched at both
country and regional levels. UNDP`s support ranges from preparation of sound strategies for
environmental protection and implementation of national environmental plans to the design of
programs for environmental education.
Other regional initiatives included the establishment of collaborative networks in the
area of water management including supplementary irrigation and water management at the
farm level, range management, and sand dune stabilization.
UNDP will play the primary role in ensuring the development and management of
capacity building programs and technical assistance projects.
Loans from Multilateral and Regional Banks
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Loans may come from multilateral banks, mainly the European Investment Bank; the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBDR); and the World Bank. The
World Bank and regional banks can provide loan finance for larger projects and technical
assistance directly, and for smaller projects through financial intermediaries in the borrowing
country, normally at rates lower than those obtainable on the commercial market.
The amounts available for environmental projects depend on their country and sectoral
priorities and the recipient`s borrowing capacity. These banks are guided by the priorities and
resource allocations of governments. Environmental investment by these banks depends on
the priorities of the borrowing country, its level of borrowing or indebtedness and the
anticipated economic conditions it can support, the balance in investment activities among
priority sectors, the quality of the proposed investment, and the borrower or project sponsor.
When assessing project financing proposals, these banks focus in particular on the sponsor
or borrower, and on their capacity and planning for repayment of the loan. The funds of the
international financial banks are lent at or near market terms, for frequently longer maturity and
with longer grace periods than those available from other sources. Their use is contingent
upon the willingness of the borrower to agree to service the loan and the willingness of the
state to provide guarantees for repayment that some of these institutions require. The EBRD
is also able to lend to viable projects on a limited resource basis. In general, loans from
international banks cover foreign currency costs only while local currency funds must be
found from other sources. The possibility of blending loan and grant money in a single project
should always be examined. Maximising the involvement of the private sector takes the
burden off central government and effectively implements the polluter pays principle.
The World Bank
The World Bank can provide loan to assist countries to set priorities, improve
environmental assessment, capacity building, and implement programs for sound
environmental stewardship. It can also provide advice and help countries for the preparation
and implementation of National Action Programmes, and can ensure that Bank lending
incorporates environmental concerns at every stage of preparation, and design and
implementation of projects that supports. The Bank participates in the Global Environmental
Facility`activities.
The World Bank environmental activities involve policy dialogue, lending, technical
assistance, research and aid coordination. The World Bank lending to the Mediterranean
region is increasing for country-level institution building and for the management of critical
natural resources such as forests, watersheds, freshwater, wild-life and soils.
The European Investment Bank
The protection of the environment is among the key priorities of the EIB`s lending
policy; it thus acts in line with the objectives of the European Community, which puts an
increasing emphasis on safeguarding the environment and achieving sustainable growth. The
EIB`s interest in environmental protection is pursued through three complementary
components:
a) for each investment scheme, the Bank takes into account the overall
environmental impact.
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b) the EIB provides funds for projects aimed exclusively or primarily at environmental
protection, including pollution control equipment in industrial plants, or projects aimed at
improving urban environment; and
c) in appropriate cases, the Bank supports feasibility studies and technical
assistance schemes in order to help identify priority investment needs and design cost-
efficient solutions.
The main aim of the EIB is to support projects that produce one or a number of the
following benefits: improvements in drinking water supplies and waste water treatment; the
introduction of environmentally sound techniques to process solid, in some cases toxic,
waste; a reduction of atmospheric pollution, especially from power station and industrial plant;
the promotion of environmentally sound industrial processes and products; and the protection
of the environment and the improvement of the quality of life in urban/coastal areas.
Financial Instruments from European Union
Various sources of funds from the European Union can be mobilized in favour of
environmental projects in the Mediterranean region. They consist of grant programs funded by
the EC and loans from the EIB. Bilateral aids have not been taken into considerations and
neither have the specific characteristics of the countries of the Mediterranean belonging to the
group of Eastern countries (Albania) which benefit from other instruments such as PHARE.
The LIFE Programme: The revised regulation (EC nº. 1404, OJ L 181/1 of 20/07/96)
adopted in 1996 contains some adjustments in view of pursuing the action between 1 January
96 and 31 December 1999.
From this second phase onwards, the LIFE programme has been subdivided into
three parts according to fields of action: LIFE-Environment (applicable in the Union territory);
LIFE-Nature (also applicable in the Union territory); LIFE-Third countries (applicable to
Mediterranean countries).
LIFE-ENVIRONMENT: Eligible actions for the 1996-1999 period are the following:
innovatory or pilot actions to promote sustainable development in industrial activities; pilot and
promotional actions as well as technical assistance to local communities to foster integration
of the environment into land planning and promote sustainable development; preparatory
actions for the implementation of the Community environmental policy and legislation. 46% of
the total LIFE budget are earmarked for actions within the framework of LIFE-Environment.
LIFE-NATURE: The aim of LIFE-Nature is nature conservation in the widest sense by
supporting actions "required to preserve and restore natural habitats and populations of
animal and plant species in a favourable state of conservation. The LIFE-Nature indicative
budget for the 1996-1999 period amounts to 27 MECU.
In principle, all the actions proposed under LIFE-nature must be carried out within the
EU. However, there is an exceptional possibility of including actions in third countries if the
project concerns a habitat or a species of Community interest. The amount of the action
outside the EU does not exceed 10% of the planned budget.
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LIFE-THIRD COUNTRIES: The aim of LIFE-Third countries is to implement technical
assistance actions and pilot actions in the Mediterranean third countries7 in the following
areas: technical assistance for the establishment of the necessary administrative structures
in the field of the environment and for the development of environment policies and actions
programmes; the conservation or restoration of important habitats hosting endangered flora
and fauna; pilot actions to promote sustainable development.
Among the criteria applicable to actions in third countries, it should be mentioned that
these actions must contribute to an approach fostering sustainable development at
international, national or regional levels and bring solutions to well-spread environmental
problems in the region or field concerned. It must be noted that proposals should have an
immediate practical application (which leaves out studies, research projects, etc.). The
budget allocated to LIFE-Third countries for the 1996-1999 periods amounts to 36 MECU.
Decentralized cooperation: A budget line for "decentralized cooperation" (B7-5077)
was created in 1992, targeting all developing countries without distinction. This line has been
provided with a very small budget: 6 MECU in 1996 and 5 MECU for 1997. The regional
distribution of funds is very irregular, the Mediterranean being the area benefitting less from
Community funds.
Environmental Actions in Developing Countries: The budget line "Ecology in developing
countries" (line- B7-5040) was created in 1982 to fund actions in the Mediterranean countries,
as well as Africa, Latin America or Asia, always in relation to geographical priorities. In the
Mediterranean area, priority has been given to pollution control. Three types of action can
apply for support: those aiming at the integration of environmental aspects into cooperation,
including training actions and environmental impact assessments; those with the objective of
helping partners of developing countries to improve the institutional capacities required for the
formulation and implementation of projects; those making it possible to test and promote
innovatory approaches and techniques though pilot projects dealing with urban environment or
coastal ecosystem. The allocated budget in 1996 amounted to 15 MECU.
MEDA Financial Instrument: The main objective of the MEDA instrument is "to
contribute to common interest initiatives in the three areas of the Euro-Mediterranean
Partnership: to strengthen political stability and democracy, to set up a Euro-Mediterranean
free trade area, to develop economic and social cooperation, and to take into account the
human and cultural dimension" (Council Regulation (EC) nº. 1488/96 of 23 July 1996).
The guidelines for the indicative programmes under MEDA are, among others: the
complementarity between bilateral and regional programmes; the "multiannual" nature of
programming, which allows for middle-term intervention; the need to make indicative
programmes focus on a limited number of priority sectors; the need for regional cooperation
to deal with the three domains of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, etc. The MEDA budget
line was provided with 4,125 MECU for the 1995-1999 period, of which 100 MECU are
reserved to the reduction of interests from loans granted by the European Investment Bank in
the field of environment.
7
In the Mediterranean area, eligible third countries are the following: Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Cyprus, West Bank and Gaza, Croatia, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta,
Morocco, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey.
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Multilateral Programmes: The Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance
Programme (METAP)
The aim of the METAP Programme is to identify actions, through feasibility studies,
which could be supported by investments from the World Bank, the EIB, the UE, national
governments, etc. The final objective is to curb environmental degradation in the
Mediterranean area.
METAP entered in a new phase in 1996. The joint definition of indicators for
sustainable development in the Mediterranean area will be one of the priorities of METAP III,
which plans to assist Mediterranean countries in the implementation of a reliable framework of
specific indicators and related reference points that can be used to monitor and assess the
impact of policies, programmes and projects, including METAP activities, the priorities of
which are capacity building and integrated water management as well as holding pollution in
check and preventing it at "critical spots".
METAP III plans to continue its work upstream by providing funds and technical
support to medium-term activities leading to the setting-up of policies and a series of
investments to restore the environment. Until now, METAP has already granted some 25
MECU in support of 121 technical assistance activities. These activities have helped in turn to
identify and set up investments for the environment amounting to more than 1,5 billion ECU.
Under METAP III, cost estimates for identified activities amount to some 91 MECU, which
constitutes a significant increase.
Bilateral agreements
Bilateral agreements have proved to be an important mechanism of cooperation
between developed and developing countries. The European Union and many States
members have signed bilateral cooperation agreements with Mediterranean countries.
Environment and sustainable development are an important part of these agreements. Other
OCDE countries have also signed bilateral agreements with Mediterranean countries with the
same interests for environmental matters.
Alternative funding sources
Export credit agencies: These are a source of shorter-term project financing,
especially for specialized equipment.
Debt-for equity swaps and eco-conversion programme: Creditors agree to convert the
debts owed to them into local funds to be applied for environmentally beneficial expenditures.
Foundation grants: Private or public foundations may use their resources to support
innovative approaches to environmental management or the development of human
resources.
Private funding: Voluntary contributions through non-governmental channel or NGOs.
Investments from private sector institutions: Loans may be taken out from private
sector institutions in the same way as from equivalent national institutions.
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11.6.3 Clearing-house mechanism
As a means of assisting and mobilizing technical scientific and human resources,
including access to cleaner production technology as well as the application of the best
available techniques and the best environmental practice, States should establish a
collaborative network (a clearing-house mechanism) to enhance the transfer and cooperation
among developing countries and between developed and developing countries.
It would be a mechanism for responding to requests on scientific, technical and
human resources from national Governments, organizations, institutions, firms and/or
individuals. The clearing-house would consist of three basis elements:
a)
A data directory, with components organized by source-category, cross-
referenced to economic sectors, containing information on current sources of
information, practical experience and technical expertise;
b)
information-delivery mechanisms to allow decision makers to have ready
access to the data directory and obtain direct contact with the sources of
information, practical experience and technical expertise identified therein
(including the organizations, institutions, firms and/or individuals most able to
provide relevant advice and assistance);
c)
Infrastructure- the institutional process for developing, organizing and
maintaining the directory and delivery mechanisms.
This mechanism should be established on existing subregional, regional or national
research centres which are already linked with national institutions and NGOs.
Proposed targets
-
By the year (2000), to develop a clearing-house mechanism.
Proposed activities
-
The functions of the clearing-house will include:
-
To collect, treat and disseminate information as well as data on available
technologies, their sources, their environmental risks and the broad terms
under which they may be acquired.
-
To disseminate information on concrete cases where environmentally sound
technologies were successfully developed and implemented.
-
To advise, assist and suggest guidelines, for instance for policy integration,
capacity building, technology transfer, etc.
-
To facilitate other services, as for instance source of advice, training,
technologies and technology assessment.
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-
To allow decision makers to have ready access to the data and obtain direct
contact with the sources of information, practical experience and technical
expertise identified therein (including the organizations, institutions, firms
and/or individuals)
The Clearing-house, in the implementation of their functions, should be coordinate,
and not replicate, the work of the organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), including the UNEP International Cleaner Production
Information Clearing House (UNEP/ICPIC), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the
International Maritime Organization (IMO), etc. They should in addition make full use of the
work of other regional networks as well as intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations and private sector.
12. GAPS, PROBLEMS AND FOLLOW-UP
The present Strategic Action Programme was prepared by the Secretariat in response
to specific requirements of the 1996 LBS Protocol (Art.5 and Art. 15). The PDF-B grant of
GEF assigned to MAP for its preparation was an opportunity given to the Contracting Parties
to fulfil an important provision of the Protocol at low cost for MAP and in a very short time. In
addition, the preparation of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and the Report on Pollution
Hot Spots, required by GEF as a basis for the formulation of the Strategic Action Programme,
provided MAP in a record time with a collation of a very large number of information on the
main pollution problems of the region and on the possible remedial actions and their costs. In
general terms, it is possible to say that the process initiated through the GEF-sponsored
activities is providing the Contracting Parties with a solid basis for planning and eventually
implementing the long-term pollution control strategy needed for the implementation of the
LBS Protocol.
The Strategic Action Programme proposes a very comprehensive and ambitious
exercise for the Contracting Parties. Although the programme provides a large number of
information, at the end of this first phase of the GEF-sponsored project the following gaps and
problems can be easily identified:
(a)
Project and programme specification
-
to look much more closely and critically at the catalogue of Hot Spots and Sensitive
Areas presented by countries. The proposed interventions should be clearly specified
and the technological options involved critically examined;
-
to focus on the socio-economic context of the Hot Spot areas and identify the
population, employment, social and cultural structure of the areas for better analysis
and sharper understanding of the impacts and benefits underlying the proposed
interventions;
-
to examine critically the basic economic policies applied in selected groups of
countries with important regional Hot Spots to catalogue economic measures
(subsidies, loan priorities, taxes, etc.) encouraging directly or indirectly pollution as part
of export, import substitution, rural development policies and specific assistance to
particular development projects (energy, agriculture, transport, tourism). Economic
policy biases and distortions are often serious background sources of pollution which
make it difficult to identify if "point sources" are separated from the rest of the
economic policy context;
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-
to review opportunities for the mobilisation of private sector resources and the scope
for the use of incentives, measures to influence private sector decisions and behaviour
related to the environment.
(b)
Appropriate cost/benefit studies
-
to develop a practical framework for cost/benefits study of the main priority projects
and programmes based on regionally relevant evaluation techniques, issues and data,
and utilising to the maximum the few existing case studies;
-
to prepare more accurate cost estimates for priority projects to be used for pre-
investment analysis needed by potential donors;
-
to identify more sharply and measure the main benefits to accrue from the
implementation of the key priority projects, including proposals for overcoming data
and specific measurement problems;
-
to prepare a more detailed investment portfolio focusing on the cluster of priority
projects and programmes aiming at the incorporation of elements concerning the
social justification for donor support, the beneficiary population, funding and investment
recovery mechanisms and national participation capabilities.
(c)
Financing capabilities at the regional and national level
-
to collect information on regional multi-lateral and bi-lateral funding sources and
national expenditure on environmental programmes for the purpose of identifying
"national" and "incremental" investment needs;
-
to analyse "affordability" and cost-recovery issues in relation to the diversity of national
economic and social conditions which may entail specific country-based social
impacts caused by the implementation of capital-intensive environmental facilities and
the consequent introduction of user charges.
As a result of the above, it is evident that if on the one hand the proposed Strategic
Action Programme shows the way to follow for an efficient long-term solution to land-based
pollution, on the other hand it represents only the starting point of the process. In order to
achieve the final goal of the Programme, it is therefore necessary to plan a step-by-step
approach which should keep into account the available resources and opportunities at the
national and international levels.
At the present moment, the provision of the 1997 GEF grant, which includes possible
follow-up activities, is a concrete opportunity given to Contracting Parties to initiate the
process indicated by the Strategic Action Programme. The GEF initiative foresees first the
adoption of the Strategic Action Programme by the Contracting Parties. After that, a full GEF
project could be prepared in conjunction with the convening of a Meeting of potential donors to
examine the support required by developing countries for the implementation of the
Programme. The project could cover the next phase of implementation of the activities which
could include a sum between 4 and 6 ml US$ on the assumption that a percentage of that
sum (a minimum of 20-25 per cent) could be covered by additional donors (national and
international including MAP). This sum, which alone cannot obviously solve the existing
problems identified through the GEF initiative, should be utilized in the most effective way, i.e.
to prepare the ground for the concrete implementation of the interventions proposed.
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As a result, the full GEF project, aiming at funding the costs of addressing
transboundary issues and problems and achieving regional benefits, could include firstly the
selection of a number of priority hot spots of transboundary significance for detailed feasibility
study and cost analysis and, secondly, a number of regional level activities of the Strategic
Action Programme designed to leverage both national support to the execution of the
Programme and donor support for specific activities in developing countries. The GEF project
should also include an incremental cost analysis including an estimate of the existing
baseline, and indication of the additional funding that would be applied by national
Governments to address issues and problems identified as priority.